CONSERVING WATER Irrigation need not be wasteful. Water may be saved by using the following methods of irrigation.
Drip Irrigation Drip irrigation involves the slow application of water, drop by drop, to the root-zone of a crop. It is also called 'trickle irrigation'. This method of irrigation was initiated in Israel and is now being tried in other countries, including India.
In this method, water is used very economically, since losses due to deep percolation and surface evaporation are reduced to the minimum. This method is, therefore, very much suited to the arid regions of India and is being followed for irrigating orchard crops at present. The successful growing of orchards even on saline soils has been made possible by the drip system of irrigation. Drip irrigation can also be used for applying fertilisers in solution.
Work is in progress in India to design, and to adapt drip irrigation to conditions in this country. The initial high cost of equipment and its maintenance are the major limitations of this system. It may still prove to be cheaper than the sprinkler system, especially for orchards and other widely spaced crops.
Sprinkler Irrigation Sprinkler irrigation is a system whereby water pressure is applied to the surface of any crop or soil in the form of a thin spray from above. This method is advantageous, as water can be applied at a desired rate and a uniform distribution of water and high efficiency can be ensured. The sprinkler system can be adopted in case of almost all crops, especially cash and orchard crops. The system is especially suited to shallow sandy soils of uneven topography, where levelling is not practicable. It is useful in effective leaching of salt in saline soils, cooling the crops during high temperature, and controlling frost during freezing temperatures.
The sprinkler system is classified on. the basis of the portability of its equipment as (i) portable, (ii) semiportable, and (iii) stationary or permanent. The stationary system is more expensive than the portable one. The portable and semi-port~ble systems are again divided into manual (hand-moved) system and power-moved system. There are self-propelled sprinkler systems which move laterally or radially around a central pivot feeding line. The portable systems can be a useful mode of irrigation in an area ranging from 3-4 hectare to 50-60 hectare or more.
There are boom type sprinkler systems which employ one boom sprinkler head on each lateral. These systems irrigate an area of 75 to 100 ID radius.
Showing posts with label Vegetables. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Vegetables. Show all posts
Tuesday, November 3, 2009
Monday, November 2, 2009
Multipurpose Projects
Multipurpose Projects A multipurpose project is a river valley project which serves a number of purposes all at once such as:
(i) Storage of water for future use
(ii) Supply of water for irrigation
(ill) Generation of hydroelectricity
(iv) Control of floods
(v) Checking of soil erosion (through afforestation and control of water flow)
(vi) Development of inl~nd navigation (vii) Reclamation of water-logged lands, and thereby
control of malaria
(viii) Fish culture
(ix) Development of riversides as recreation spots and health resorts.
Several irrigation and multipurpose projects have been undertaken in independent India.
Nagarjunasagar Located on the Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh; conceived for the unified development of irrigation, flood control and power generation.
Tllngabhadra On Tungabhadra river-a tributary of the Krishna. Joint project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka for irrigation and electricity.
Poochampad On River Godavari, a masonry dam in Andhra Pradesh for irrigation.
Gandak Project On River Gandak; Bihar and Uttar IPradesh are the participating states. Nepal has also been getting power and irrigation benefits after 1959.
Kosi Project On Kosi river in Bihar; for irrigation, flood control and electricity. In 1965, a barrage was constructed near Hanumannagar in Nepal.
Kakrapara Project On Tapi river in Gujarat. Conceived for irrigation and power purposes.
Ukai Multipurpose Project Located on Tapi river in Gujarat.
Mahi Project On Mahi river in Gujarat. It has two stages; stage I consists of a masonry pick-up weir at Wanakbori village. Stage II envisages construction of a 1,430 m long and 58 m high dam near Kadma. It has high irrigation potentialities.
Ghataprabha Valley Development Conceived for harnessing water of River Ghataprabha for irrigation in Belgaum and Bijapur districts of Karnataka.
Malaprabha Project Located on Malaprabha river in Belgaum district of Karnataka.
Upper Krishna Project In Karnataka across the Krishna river. A dam is being constructed at Almatti.
Tawa Project Construction of reservoir across Tawa river, a tributary of the Narmada in Hoshangabad district (Madhya Pradesh).
Chambal Project On River Chambal. Jointly executed by Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. In the first stage the Gandhi Sagar Dam and Kota barrage were completed. In the second stage, Rana Pratap Sagar Dam (112 MW capacity) was constructed. Third stage comprises of Jawahar Sagar Dam (99 MW power station).
Rajghat Dam Project On Betwa river. An inter-state project of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Bhima Project On Bhima river in Maharashtra. Envisages construction of two dams--one on Pawana river and another across Krishna river. The work has been completed.
Jayakwadi Project On River Godavari 'in Maharashtra. First stage includes construction of an earthen dam; second stage envisages construction of canal across Sindphana river.
Narmada Project (Indira Sagar Dam) On Narmada river; if completed, world's largest river valley project. Jointventure of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The project has been under controversy.
Sardar Sarovar Project On Narmada river in Gujarat. Inter-state project benefiting Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. It is embroiled in controversy.
Hirakud Project On Mahanadi river in Orissa. A multipurpose project; world's longest mainstream dam.
Bhakra Nanga/ A joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. This is a straight gravity dam on the Satluj river at Bhakra. Multipurpose project.
Beas Project Joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. It consists of the Beas-Satluj link, earth-rockfill Pong Dam on Beas river; Beas transmission system.
Thein Dam Earthen dam on River Ravi in Punjab. Rajasthan Canal Project (Indira Gandhi Canal) Provides irrigation facility to north-western region of Rajasthan.
Parambikulam Aliyar Joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It envisages harnessing the water of six rivers located in Annamalai Hills and two in the plains.
Sarda Sahayak Project Located in Uttar Pradesh across the River Ganga.
RamgangaProject Located in Chuisot stream in Uttar Pradesh. The project is for irrigation and power. The project will supply 200 cusecs of water for Delhi water supply scheme.
Banasagar Project On Son river, in pursuance of an interstate agreement among Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Farakka Project In West Bengal, taken up for the twin objectives of preservation and maintenance of Kolkata port and for improving the navigability of the Hooghly. The project consists of a barrage across the Ganga at Farakka; a barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirathi; a feeder canal (39 km long) taking off from the right bank of Ganga at Farakka and falling into Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage. Rail-cum-road bridge over the Farakka provides a communication link for Assam, West Bengal and rest of India.
Knngasabati Project On Kangasabati and Kumari rivers in West Bengal. It envisages the construction of earth dams.
Mayurakshi Project It is in West Bengal, comprising Canada dam and meant for power and irrigation purposes.
Damodar Valley Project On Damodar river. Inter-state project of Bihar and West Bengal. The project provides irrigation facility, flood control, power generation and soil conservation measures. Important multipurpose dams are Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon and Panchet. Three thermal power stations at Bokaro (I and II units also working), Chandrapura and Durgapur. Main supplier of power in Bihar and West Bengal.
Dul Hasti The project is part of the programme of cascade development of estimated 6,000 MW of hydropower potential on the River Chenab in Jammu and Kashmir. Chukka Project A joint venture of India and Bhutan. It is a turnkey project initiated by Indian government.
Salal Project Commenced in Jammu and Kashmir on River Chenab for irrigation and power generation, after agreement with Pakistan was reached.
(i) Storage of water for future use
(ii) Supply of water for irrigation
(ill) Generation of hydroelectricity
(iv) Control of floods
(v) Checking of soil erosion (through afforestation and control of water flow)
(vi) Development of inl~nd navigation (vii) Reclamation of water-logged lands, and thereby
control of malaria
(viii) Fish culture
(ix) Development of riversides as recreation spots and health resorts.
Several irrigation and multipurpose projects have been undertaken in independent India.
Nagarjunasagar Located on the Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh; conceived for the unified development of irrigation, flood control and power generation.
Tllngabhadra On Tungabhadra river-a tributary of the Krishna. Joint project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka for irrigation and electricity.
Poochampad On River Godavari, a masonry dam in Andhra Pradesh for irrigation.
Gandak Project On River Gandak; Bihar and Uttar IPradesh are the participating states. Nepal has also been getting power and irrigation benefits after 1959.
Kosi Project On Kosi river in Bihar; for irrigation, flood control and electricity. In 1965, a barrage was constructed near Hanumannagar in Nepal.
Kakrapara Project On Tapi river in Gujarat. Conceived for irrigation and power purposes.
Ukai Multipurpose Project Located on Tapi river in Gujarat.
Mahi Project On Mahi river in Gujarat. It has two stages; stage I consists of a masonry pick-up weir at Wanakbori village. Stage II envisages construction of a 1,430 m long and 58 m high dam near Kadma. It has high irrigation potentialities.
Ghataprabha Valley Development Conceived for harnessing water of River Ghataprabha for irrigation in Belgaum and Bijapur districts of Karnataka.
Malaprabha Project Located on Malaprabha river in Belgaum district of Karnataka.
Upper Krishna Project In Karnataka across the Krishna river. A dam is being constructed at Almatti.
Tawa Project Construction of reservoir across Tawa river, a tributary of the Narmada in Hoshangabad district (Madhya Pradesh).
Chambal Project On River Chambal. Jointly executed by Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. In the first stage the Gandhi Sagar Dam and Kota barrage were completed. In the second stage, Rana Pratap Sagar Dam (112 MW capacity) was constructed. Third stage comprises of Jawahar Sagar Dam (99 MW power station).
Rajghat Dam Project On Betwa river. An inter-state project of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Bhima Project On Bhima river in Maharashtra. Envisages construction of two dams--one on Pawana river and another across Krishna river. The work has been completed.
Jayakwadi Project On River Godavari 'in Maharashtra. First stage includes construction of an earthen dam; second stage envisages construction of canal across Sindphana river.
Narmada Project (Indira Sagar Dam) On Narmada river; if completed, world's largest river valley project. Jointventure of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The project has been under controversy.
Sardar Sarovar Project On Narmada river in Gujarat. Inter-state project benefiting Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. It is embroiled in controversy.
Hirakud Project On Mahanadi river in Orissa. A multipurpose project; world's longest mainstream dam.
Bhakra Nanga/ A joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. This is a straight gravity dam on the Satluj river at Bhakra. Multipurpose project.
Beas Project Joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. It consists of the Beas-Satluj link, earth-rockfill Pong Dam on Beas river; Beas transmission system.
Thein Dam Earthen dam on River Ravi in Punjab. Rajasthan Canal Project (Indira Gandhi Canal) Provides irrigation facility to north-western region of Rajasthan.
Parambikulam Aliyar Joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It envisages harnessing the water of six rivers located in Annamalai Hills and two in the plains.
Sarda Sahayak Project Located in Uttar Pradesh across the River Ganga.
RamgangaProject Located in Chuisot stream in Uttar Pradesh. The project is for irrigation and power. The project will supply 200 cusecs of water for Delhi water supply scheme.
Banasagar Project On Son river, in pursuance of an interstate agreement among Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Farakka Project In West Bengal, taken up for the twin objectives of preservation and maintenance of Kolkata port and for improving the navigability of the Hooghly. The project consists of a barrage across the Ganga at Farakka; a barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirathi; a feeder canal (39 km long) taking off from the right bank of Ganga at Farakka and falling into Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage. Rail-cum-road bridge over the Farakka provides a communication link for Assam, West Bengal and rest of India.
Knngasabati Project On Kangasabati and Kumari rivers in West Bengal. It envisages the construction of earth dams.
Mayurakshi Project It is in West Bengal, comprising Canada dam and meant for power and irrigation purposes.
Damodar Valley Project On Damodar river. Inter-state project of Bihar and West Bengal. The project provides irrigation facility, flood control, power generation and soil conservation measures. Important multipurpose dams are Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon and Panchet. Three thermal power stations at Bokaro (I and II units also working), Chandrapura and Durgapur. Main supplier of power in Bihar and West Bengal.
Dul Hasti The project is part of the programme of cascade development of estimated 6,000 MW of hydropower potential on the River Chenab in Jammu and Kashmir. Chukka Project A joint venture of India and Bhutan. It is a turnkey project initiated by Indian government.
Salal Project Commenced in Jammu and Kashmir on River Chenab for irrigation and power generation, after agreement with Pakistan was reached.
Canal Irrigation in other States
Punjab and Haryana Due to flat nature of the ground, perennial flow of rivers and the fertile alluvial soil, the canal system is mostly suitable for these states. A special feature of the system is that all the rivers have been inter-connected by means of canals so that the water resources of these are pooled together for maximum utilisation. The Upper Bari Doab Canal, first of its kind in India, was completed in 1859 over the Ravi river at Madhopur; The main canal and its distributaries irrigate land in Amritsar and Gurdaspur district~. The Western Yamuna Canal, one of the oldest canal systems in India, is constructed at Tejwala In Haryana. It irrigates land in the districts of Patiala in Punjab and Ambala, Rohtak, Kamal, Jind and Hissar districts. The Sirhind Canal was constructed in 1884. It takes off from the Satluj at Ropar, and irrigates over six lakh hectare of land in the districts of Ludhiana, Ferozepur, and Patiala in Punjab and Jind (Haryana). The Bhakra Canal, constructed in 1964, irrigates large tracts of agricultural land in Punjab and Haryana. It takes water from the Bhakra dam. The Nangal Canal is a continuation of the ~hakra canal and irrigates land in the districts of Jafandhar, Ferozepur, Ludhiana, Patiala.
Uttar Pradesh In Uttar Pradesh canal irrigation is gaining importance day by day and is significant in drought prone areas. The Upper and Lower Ganga Canals are the oldest and the most dependable canal systems in Uttar Pradesh. Upper Ganga canal takes off from Ganga near Hardwar while the Lower Ganga canal starts from Narora. The Eastern Yamuna Canal takes off from River Yamuna near Faizabad and irrigates land in the districts of Muzaffamagar, Saharanpur, Meerut and Delhi. The Agra Canal takes off frbm the Yamuna at Okhla and irrigates land in the districts of Mathura, Gurgaon, Agra, Bharatpur and Delhi. The Sharda Canal takes off from River Sharda at Baubasa. This old canal irrigates large tracts of Gorakhpur, Lucknow, Faizabad districts.
Bihar In Bihar the canal system is moderately developed. Most of the canals are of the perennial type. The Sone Canals derive their water from a
weir across River Sone near Dehri and this water is utilised for irrigating land in the Ganga, Patna and Shahabad districts. The Triveni Canal takes off from River Triveni and
is used in Champaran district.
West Bengal Canal systems in the state were developed only during the First Five Year Plan. Most of the canals in the state were constructed by the Damodar Valley Corporation. Two other barrages have been constructed on the Mayurakshi, Kangsabati and Tista rivers.
Orissa and Andhra Pradesh The famous Hirakud project and Mahanadi canal are supplying ample irrigation water to Puri, Cuttack and Sambalpur districts in Orissa. In Andhra Pradesh, Krishna and Godavari, two large river systems, are providing ample water for irrigational purpose.
Kerala Malampuzha canal system in Palakkad district, Periyar canal in Kozhikode district, and Pamba canal in Kollam district are the major irrigational canals.
Rajasthan Here the rainfall is scanty and the area is drought prone. A majDr share of Bhakra canal water flows through Rajasthan. The oldest canal system of Rajasthan is the Ganganagar canal. Other noted canal systems are Jawai canal, Chambal projects and the newly constructed Rajasthan Canal Project (Indira Gandhi canals).
The detrimental effects of canal irrigation, however, make canals a problematic source. Overflooding of canals, coupled with the absence of lining of canal beds, leads to the seepage of water into adjoining water tables; and if the water table is close to the surface, to salinisation of soil cover through capillary action. The saturation of water table leads to waterlogging and subsequently to the swamping of land, leaving it unsuitable for cultivation or habitation. Waterlogging and salination have left six million hectare area as waste, a third of it lying in the northern plains.
Scientific water management practices are required to overcome such effects. Drip-irrigation and sprinklers are two such methods. The Command Areas Development Programme has efficient and scientific water management as one of the objectives.
Uttar Pradesh In Uttar Pradesh canal irrigation is gaining importance day by day and is significant in drought prone areas. The Upper and Lower Ganga Canals are the oldest and the most dependable canal systems in Uttar Pradesh. Upper Ganga canal takes off from Ganga near Hardwar while the Lower Ganga canal starts from Narora. The Eastern Yamuna Canal takes off from River Yamuna near Faizabad and irrigates land in the districts of Muzaffamagar, Saharanpur, Meerut and Delhi. The Agra Canal takes off frbm the Yamuna at Okhla and irrigates land in the districts of Mathura, Gurgaon, Agra, Bharatpur and Delhi. The Sharda Canal takes off from River Sharda at Baubasa. This old canal irrigates large tracts of Gorakhpur, Lucknow, Faizabad districts.
Bihar In Bihar the canal system is moderately developed. Most of the canals are of the perennial type. The Sone Canals derive their water from a
weir across River Sone near Dehri and this water is utilised for irrigating land in the Ganga, Patna and Shahabad districts. The Triveni Canal takes off from River Triveni and
is used in Champaran district.
West Bengal Canal systems in the state were developed only during the First Five Year Plan. Most of the canals in the state were constructed by the Damodar Valley Corporation. Two other barrages have been constructed on the Mayurakshi, Kangsabati and Tista rivers.
Orissa and Andhra Pradesh The famous Hirakud project and Mahanadi canal are supplying ample irrigation water to Puri, Cuttack and Sambalpur districts in Orissa. In Andhra Pradesh, Krishna and Godavari, two large river systems, are providing ample water for irrigational purpose.
Kerala Malampuzha canal system in Palakkad district, Periyar canal in Kozhikode district, and Pamba canal in Kollam district are the major irrigational canals.
Rajasthan Here the rainfall is scanty and the area is drought prone. A majDr share of Bhakra canal water flows through Rajasthan. The oldest canal system of Rajasthan is the Ganganagar canal. Other noted canal systems are Jawai canal, Chambal projects and the newly constructed Rajasthan Canal Project (Indira Gandhi canals).
The detrimental effects of canal irrigation, however, make canals a problematic source. Overflooding of canals, coupled with the absence of lining of canal beds, leads to the seepage of water into adjoining water tables; and if the water table is close to the surface, to salinisation of soil cover through capillary action. The saturation of water table leads to waterlogging and subsequently to the swamping of land, leaving it unsuitable for cultivation or habitation. Waterlogging and salination have left six million hectare area as waste, a third of it lying in the northern plains.
Scientific water management practices are required to overcome such effects. Drip-irrigation and sprinklers are two such methods. The Command Areas Development Programme has efficient and scientific water management as one of the objectives.
Sources of Irrigation
Sources of Irrigation Depending upon the availability of surface or groundwater, topography, soil, rainfall conditions and rivers, various types of irrigation are practised in India.
Mostly prevalent in uneven and relatively rocky plateau of peninsular India, tanks are the most popular method of irrigation in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
In India most of the tanks are small in size and built by individuals or groups of farmers by raising bunds across seasonal streams. About 11 to 14 per cent of the net irrigated area in the country is normally under tank irrigation.
Tank irrigation in the Deccan and South India is highly developed compared to tank irrigation in other regions because the land is rocky and the soil is not porous. Rainwater cannot sink into the ground, making it difficult to dig wells. The digging of canals is also difficult and expensive on the rocky surface of the peninsular plateau. As the rivers of South India are seasonal, the construction of perennial canals is not feasible. The hard rocks of the region do not allow the water of tanks to seep through. Hence tank irrigation has been successful there. But there are drawbacks in tankirrigation: tanks cover large areas of cultivable land; evaporation of water is relatively rapid due to large expanse of shallow water in the tanks; tanks do not ensure a perennial supply of water.
Well irrigation is an important source ofirrigation. The water in wells is obtained from the subsoil and has to be lifted by suitable devices, e.g., manual or animal labour or by pumping sets run by power. Wells (including tubewells) account for more than 30 million acres (more than 55 per cent of total irrigated area). Well irrigation is most common in alluvial plain areas where the water table is fairly high. Owing to the soft nature of the soil, wells are easy to dig and the yield of crops from the
land after irrigation is rewarding.
The states with 50 per cent or more of the irrigated area under wells and tube-wells are Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra. Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu also have a sizeable area under well irrigation.
The major changes in respect of well irrigation during the last few decades include change from dug-wells to tubewells and large scale replacement of animal power with commercial power (electricity or diesel) for lifting water. Tamil Nadu has the largest number of electrified pumpsets. Now, waterpumps running on solar energy are also being encouraged.
Canal irrigation is also an important source of irrigation accounting for above 30 per cent of the net irrigated area. Canal irrigation is possible in areas which are extensive plains and are drained by well distributed perennial rivers, such as the northern plains, coastal plains, deltas (where even the distributaries can act as canals), and the broad valleys of the peninsula.
Inundation canals are those which are taken out without constructing dams or 'bunds' and get water only when the main stream is flooded-thus, they have limited validity. Now, the efforts are on to convert them to perennial systems. The post-independence period saw the construction of canals as a part of the multi-purpose projects, e.g., Bhakra-Nangal (Punjab), Damodar Valley Gharkhand and West Bengal) and the Nagarjunasagar (Karnataka) projects.
The initial costs of constructing canals is high, but once constructed, the operational cost is minimum, which makes them a cheap source of irrigation in the long run. Canal irrigation is important in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, coastal Orissa and coastal Andhra Pradesh. The canals are almost absent in hilly states like Kerala and the North-East.
Mostly prevalent in uneven and relatively rocky plateau of peninsular India, tanks are the most popular method of irrigation in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
In India most of the tanks are small in size and built by individuals or groups of farmers by raising bunds across seasonal streams. About 11 to 14 per cent of the net irrigated area in the country is normally under tank irrigation.
Tank irrigation in the Deccan and South India is highly developed compared to tank irrigation in other regions because the land is rocky and the soil is not porous. Rainwater cannot sink into the ground, making it difficult to dig wells. The digging of canals is also difficult and expensive on the rocky surface of the peninsular plateau. As the rivers of South India are seasonal, the construction of perennial canals is not feasible. The hard rocks of the region do not allow the water of tanks to seep through. Hence tank irrigation has been successful there. But there are drawbacks in tankirrigation: tanks cover large areas of cultivable land; evaporation of water is relatively rapid due to large expanse of shallow water in the tanks; tanks do not ensure a perennial supply of water.
Well irrigation is an important source ofirrigation. The water in wells is obtained from the subsoil and has to be lifted by suitable devices, e.g., manual or animal labour or by pumping sets run by power. Wells (including tubewells) account for more than 30 million acres (more than 55 per cent of total irrigated area). Well irrigation is most common in alluvial plain areas where the water table is fairly high. Owing to the soft nature of the soil, wells are easy to dig and the yield of crops from the
land after irrigation is rewarding.
The states with 50 per cent or more of the irrigated area under wells and tube-wells are Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra. Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu also have a sizeable area under well irrigation.
The major changes in respect of well irrigation during the last few decades include change from dug-wells to tubewells and large scale replacement of animal power with commercial power (electricity or diesel) for lifting water. Tamil Nadu has the largest number of electrified pumpsets. Now, waterpumps running on solar energy are also being encouraged.
Canal irrigation is also an important source of irrigation accounting for above 30 per cent of the net irrigated area. Canal irrigation is possible in areas which are extensive plains and are drained by well distributed perennial rivers, such as the northern plains, coastal plains, deltas (where even the distributaries can act as canals), and the broad valleys of the peninsula.
Inundation canals are those which are taken out without constructing dams or 'bunds' and get water only when the main stream is flooded-thus, they have limited validity. Now, the efforts are on to convert them to perennial systems. The post-independence period saw the construction of canals as a part of the multi-purpose projects, e.g., Bhakra-Nangal (Punjab), Damodar Valley Gharkhand and West Bengal) and the Nagarjunasagar (Karnataka) projects.
The initial costs of constructing canals is high, but once constructed, the operational cost is minimum, which makes them a cheap source of irrigation in the long run. Canal irrigation is important in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, coastal Orissa and coastal Andhra Pradesh. The canals are almost absent in hilly states like Kerala and the North-East.
IRRIGATION IN INDIA
IRRIGATION IN INDIA India requires irrigation to offset the variability and unequal distribution of rainfall, meet crop and soil requirements, increase production by facilitating double cropping, and promote high-yielding varieties which require water, and ensure optimum use of river water resources.
Irrigation works are classified as:
Major Irrigation: Culturable command area (CCA) more than 10,000 hectares.
Medium Irrigation: Culturable command area more than 2,000 hectares but less than 10,000 hectares.
Minor Irrigation: Culturable command area of not more than 2,000 hectares.
Whereas major and medium irrigation works are meant for tapping surface water (e.g., rivers), minor irrigation mainly involves groundwater development, e.g., tubewell, boring works, etc.
Seen in the light of irrigation intensity, the following spatial pattern emerges.
States with net irrigated area as 60 per cent or above of the net sown area These are Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, the Krishna-Godavari delta and the Cauvery delta continuing upto Chennai. These are the areas of Green Revolution.
States with net irrigated area as 30 per cent to 60 per cent of the net sown area These regions include the rest of the Ganga plains, the Kashmir valley, parts of western Maharashtra, the east coast including West Bengal.
States with net irrigated area as below 15 per cent of the net sown area These regions include the west coast: the whole of the interior peninsula, southem Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, interior Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, the plains of Rajasthan and Gujarat, and the North-East.
Thus, there is inadequate irrigation in the arid and semi-arid regions and in the high rainfall regions of the North-East.
Irrigation works are classified as:
Major Irrigation: Culturable command area (CCA) more than 10,000 hectares.
Medium Irrigation: Culturable command area more than 2,000 hectares but less than 10,000 hectares.
Minor Irrigation: Culturable command area of not more than 2,000 hectares.
Whereas major and medium irrigation works are meant for tapping surface water (e.g., rivers), minor irrigation mainly involves groundwater development, e.g., tubewell, boring works, etc.
Seen in the light of irrigation intensity, the following spatial pattern emerges.
States with net irrigated area as 60 per cent or above of the net sown area These are Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, the Krishna-Godavari delta and the Cauvery delta continuing upto Chennai. These are the areas of Green Revolution.
States with net irrigated area as 30 per cent to 60 per cent of the net sown area These regions include the rest of the Ganga plains, the Kashmir valley, parts of western Maharashtra, the east coast including West Bengal.
States with net irrigated area as below 15 per cent of the net sown area These regions include the west coast: the whole of the interior peninsula, southem Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, interior Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, the plains of Rajasthan and Gujarat, and the North-East.
Thus, there is inadequate irrigation in the arid and semi-arid regions and in the high rainfall regions of the North-East.
WATER MANAGEMENT
WATER MANAGEMENT
Land can be improved by regulating the water supply: the soil aeration can be improved, bacterial activity stimulated, crop yields improved. Further, irrigation and draining can bring marginal lands, such as deserts and swamps, into agricultural use.
IRRIGATION If natural precipitation cannot meet the moisture requirements of plants, an artificial supply of water becomes necessary. This is irrigation. Irrigation has certain advantages: (i) regular and reliable supply of water; (ii) supply of silt if irrigation is from river waters; (iii) yearround cultivation; (iv) reduction of soil salinity in .deserts (but if water is allowed to evaporate from the fields, salinity will increase).
Types of Irrigation Lifting devices include wells, water wheels and, now, pumps. Basin irrigation involves letting flood water collect in basin-like fields on either side of the river. It was an ancient practice in Egypt. In USA, it is practised on canal water to grow paddy. Tanks are small reservoirs storing rain water. Canals can lead water from rivers or storage lakes to agricultural lands, and form an important feature of irrigated lands. Inundation canals lead water from rivers at times of flood, while perennial canals are fed by large dams or barrages and supply water all round the year. Overhead irrigation is a modern practice involving the use of sprays and sprinklers (common in Europe and USA).
Land can be improved by regulating the water supply: the soil aeration can be improved, bacterial activity stimulated, crop yields improved. Further, irrigation and draining can bring marginal lands, such as deserts and swamps, into agricultural use.
IRRIGATION If natural precipitation cannot meet the moisture requirements of plants, an artificial supply of water becomes necessary. This is irrigation. Irrigation has certain advantages: (i) regular and reliable supply of water; (ii) supply of silt if irrigation is from river waters; (iii) yearround cultivation; (iv) reduction of soil salinity in .deserts (but if water is allowed to evaporate from the fields, salinity will increase).
Types of Irrigation Lifting devices include wells, water wheels and, now, pumps. Basin irrigation involves letting flood water collect in basin-like fields on either side of the river. It was an ancient practice in Egypt. In USA, it is practised on canal water to grow paddy. Tanks are small reservoirs storing rain water. Canals can lead water from rivers or storage lakes to agricultural lands, and form an important feature of irrigated lands. Inundation canals lead water from rivers at times of flood, while perennial canals are fed by large dams or barrages and supply water all round the year. Overhead irrigation is a modern practice involving the use of sprays and sprinklers (common in Europe and USA).
AGRICULTURE AND THE SOIL
AGRICULTURE AND THE SOIL
Agriculture makes use of the nutrients provided by the soil, and if these nutrients are not replaced, the soil will be impoverished.
Overcropping causes soil deterioration and may result from monoculture, multicropping without the requisite fertiliser input, and shifting cultivation.
Overgrazing will cause e~osion by destroying grass cover. Deforestation, either for marketing timber or for agricultural purposes, will cause soil erosion, especially on hill slopes.
Soil conservation and sound farming methods are required if agricultural practices are not to be environmentally degrading.
Contour ploughing, where ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope, following the natural contour of the hill, will prevent water from flowing down the hill. Gullies are less likely to develop. Terracing, strip cropping, fallowing and cover-cropping (where cover crops are planted between young trees to protect soil), crop rotation, crop diversification and use of fertilisers help maintain soil health. Water management is equally important.
Agriculture makes use of the nutrients provided by the soil, and if these nutrients are not replaced, the soil will be impoverished.
Overcropping causes soil deterioration and may result from monoculture, multicropping without the requisite fertiliser input, and shifting cultivation.
Overgrazing will cause e~osion by destroying grass cover. Deforestation, either for marketing timber or for agricultural purposes, will cause soil erosion, especially on hill slopes.
Soil conservation and sound farming methods are required if agricultural practices are not to be environmentally degrading.
Contour ploughing, where ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope, following the natural contour of the hill, will prevent water from flowing down the hill. Gullies are less likely to develop. Terracing, strip cropping, fallowing and cover-cropping (where cover crops are planted between young trees to protect soil), crop rotation, crop diversification and use of fertilisers help maintain soil health. Water management is equally important.
VEGETABLES
Vegetables of one kind or other are grown practically all over the world at least for domestic use if not for trade and export. However, in recent times, international trade in this commodity is increasing.
Tuber crops may be tropical (cassav~ and yarns) or sub-tropical (sweet potatoes) and temperate (potatoes). Nigeria and other West African countries are the largest producers of yams. Russia, Poland and China are major producers of potato.
Root crops' such as .carrots, beets, and turnips are grown mainly in cool temperate climates.
Tomatoes grow in warm temperate regions.
Mushrooms also grow in temperate climes, though some varieties may be grown in warmer regions.
India produces 10 per cent of the world onion crop, and is the third largest exporter of this vegetable.
SPICES
Spices flavour food and supply nutrients. A wide variety of spices are grown, mainly in the tropical and sub tropical lands.
India is the largest producer (as well as consumer) of spices on the whole.
Pepper is perhaps the most important of the spices. A plant of the humid tropics, it grows' best in well-drained clay loam soil, rich in humus, and flourishes in warm, moist climate. An annual rainfall of 2500 mm and temperature around 10 °C to 40°C is ideal for its cultivation. Red, laterite virgin soil on the slopes of the Western Ghats is also suitable for growing pepper. The pepper cultivation of Indi~ is concentrated in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Pepper also comes from Malaysia, Cambodia and Indonesia.
Chilli is the pod of a small plant which grows in Asia and' tropical America. Ground dried chilli is called red or cayenne pepper. It was introduced in India in the 17th century from Brazil. Moderate rainfall of 600 to 1250 mm and a temperature range of 10-30 °C are the su.itable climatic conditionS for chilli cultivation. Heavy rainfall and frost affect the crop adversely. The rainfed crop does well on deep, fertile, well-drained black cotton soils and somewhat heavy clayey loams. With some irrigation provision, chilli can also be grown on sandy and light alluvial lo~ms and red loamy soils. Most of the states in India produce chillies to some extent. But the main p~oducers among them are Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
Cinnamon is the dried inner bark of a species of laurel and comes mainly from Sri Lanka. Karnataka and Kerala produce it in India.
Cloves are dried flower buds of the clove tree, and come mainly from the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar of the East African coast, as well as from South-East Asia. Karnataka is a major producer in India.
Nutmeg is the seed of a tree which originally came from Indonesia, which is still the main producer. Some nutmeg also comes from the West Indies. Karnataka produces it in India.
Cardamom is considered as the "Queen of Spices". The seeds contain 2-8 per cent of a strongly aromatic volatile oil. The cardamom plant thrives best in tropical fQrests at altitudes ranging from 600-1500 metres, receiving a well distributed rainfall of over 1500 mm and a temperature range of 10-35 °c. It thrives best in the shade provided by the forest trees. The crop is raised chiefly on welt-drained rich forest loam and red, deep, good-textured lateritic soils having plenty of humus or leaf mould. India is the largest producer and exporter of cardamom. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are major producers of the spice.
Vanilla, a flavouring used in cakes, ice-cream and other cooked food, is obtained from the seeds of an orchid, native to the South American forests and now produced mainly in Mexico, Malagasy and Indonesia.
Ginger is mainly grown for its aromatic rhizomes, and used as a spice as well as, medicine. Ginger is believed to be a native of China. It requires high temperatures and enough rainfall (1250 to 2500 mm). A certain amount of shade is considered to be favourable for plant growth; Rich and well-drained soil is suitable for its cultivation. Sandy or clayey loams and red loams and laterites of the Malabar coast are ideal soils. India is the largest producer of dry ginger. Kerala and Meghalaya are major producers. Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, West Bengal and Orissa also produce ginger.
Turmeric is the dried rhizome of a herbaceous perennial and is a native of India or China. An important condiment and a useful dye, it is used in drug and cosmetic industries. Warm and humid climate is essential for the
turmeric crop. In regions of heavy rainfall tracts of the west.
coast, it is grown as a rainfed crop, and in other areas it is cultivated under irrigation. Turmeric thrives in welldrained, fertile, sandy and clayey, black, red or alluvial loams rich in humus and uniform in texture. Rich loamy soils having natural drainage and irrigation facilities are the best. It cannot stand water stagnation or alkalinity. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the main contributors of turmeric. Other major producers are Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Uttar Pradesh.
Tuber crops may be tropical (cassav~ and yarns) or sub-tropical (sweet potatoes) and temperate (potatoes). Nigeria and other West African countries are the largest producers of yams. Russia, Poland and China are major producers of potato.
Root crops' such as .carrots, beets, and turnips are grown mainly in cool temperate climates.
Tomatoes grow in warm temperate regions.
Mushrooms also grow in temperate climes, though some varieties may be grown in warmer regions.
India produces 10 per cent of the world onion crop, and is the third largest exporter of this vegetable.
SPICES
Spices flavour food and supply nutrients. A wide variety of spices are grown, mainly in the tropical and sub tropical lands.
India is the largest producer (as well as consumer) of spices on the whole.
Pepper is perhaps the most important of the spices. A plant of the humid tropics, it grows' best in well-drained clay loam soil, rich in humus, and flourishes in warm, moist climate. An annual rainfall of 2500 mm and temperature around 10 °C to 40°C is ideal for its cultivation. Red, laterite virgin soil on the slopes of the Western Ghats is also suitable for growing pepper. The pepper cultivation of Indi~ is concentrated in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Pepper also comes from Malaysia, Cambodia and Indonesia.
Chilli is the pod of a small plant which grows in Asia and' tropical America. Ground dried chilli is called red or cayenne pepper. It was introduced in India in the 17th century from Brazil. Moderate rainfall of 600 to 1250 mm and a temperature range of 10-30 °C are the su.itable climatic conditionS for chilli cultivation. Heavy rainfall and frost affect the crop adversely. The rainfed crop does well on deep, fertile, well-drained black cotton soils and somewhat heavy clayey loams. With some irrigation provision, chilli can also be grown on sandy and light alluvial lo~ms and red loamy soils. Most of the states in India produce chillies to some extent. But the main p~oducers among them are Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
Cinnamon is the dried inner bark of a species of laurel and comes mainly from Sri Lanka. Karnataka and Kerala produce it in India.
Cloves are dried flower buds of the clove tree, and come mainly from the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar of the East African coast, as well as from South-East Asia. Karnataka is a major producer in India.
Nutmeg is the seed of a tree which originally came from Indonesia, which is still the main producer. Some nutmeg also comes from the West Indies. Karnataka produces it in India.
Cardamom is considered as the "Queen of Spices". The seeds contain 2-8 per cent of a strongly aromatic volatile oil. The cardamom plant thrives best in tropical fQrests at altitudes ranging from 600-1500 metres, receiving a well distributed rainfall of over 1500 mm and a temperature range of 10-35 °c. It thrives best in the shade provided by the forest trees. The crop is raised chiefly on welt-drained rich forest loam and red, deep, good-textured lateritic soils having plenty of humus or leaf mould. India is the largest producer and exporter of cardamom. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are major producers of the spice.
Vanilla, a flavouring used in cakes, ice-cream and other cooked food, is obtained from the seeds of an orchid, native to the South American forests and now produced mainly in Mexico, Malagasy and Indonesia.
Ginger is mainly grown for its aromatic rhizomes, and used as a spice as well as, medicine. Ginger is believed to be a native of China. It requires high temperatures and enough rainfall (1250 to 2500 mm). A certain amount of shade is considered to be favourable for plant growth; Rich and well-drained soil is suitable for its cultivation. Sandy or clayey loams and red loams and laterites of the Malabar coast are ideal soils. India is the largest producer of dry ginger. Kerala and Meghalaya are major producers. Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, West Bengal and Orissa also produce ginger.
Turmeric is the dried rhizome of a herbaceous perennial and is a native of India or China. An important condiment and a useful dye, it is used in drug and cosmetic industries. Warm and humid climate is essential for the
turmeric crop. In regions of heavy rainfall tracts of the west.
coast, it is grown as a rainfed crop, and in other areas it is cultivated under irrigation. Turmeric thrives in welldrained, fertile, sandy and clayey, black, red or alluvial loams rich in humus and uniform in texture. Rich loamy soils having natural drainage and irrigation facilities are the best. It cannot stand water stagnation or alkalinity. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the main contributors of turmeric. Other major producers are Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Uttar Pradesh.
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