ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC FARMING
Consumer Benefits
(i) Nutrition The nutritional value of food is largely a function of its vitamin and mineral content. In this regard, organically grown food is dramatically superior in mineral content to that grown by modern conventional methods. Because it fosters the life of the soil organic farming reC!psthe benefits soil life offers in greatly facilitated plant access to soil nutrients. Healthy plants mean healthy people, and such better nourished plants provide better nourishment to people and animals alike.
(Ii) Poison-free and tasty A major benefit to consumers of organic food is that it is free of contamination with health harming chemicals such as pesticides, fungicides and herbicides. Organically grown food tastes better than that conventionally grown. The tastiness of fruit and vegetables is directly related to its sugar content, which in turn is a function of thequality of nutrition that the plant itself has enjoyed.
This quality of fruit and vegetable can be empirically measured by subjecting its juice to Brix analysis, which is a measure of its specific gravity (density). The Brix score is widely used in testing fruit and vegetables for their quality prior to export.
(iii) Food Keeps Longer Organically grown plants are nourished naturally, rendering the structural and metabolic integriry of their cellular structure superior to those conventionally grown. As a result, organically grown foods can be stored longer and do not show the latter's susceptibility to rapid mold and rotting.
Growth Benefits
Disease and Pest Resistance A healthy plant grown organically in properly balanced soil resists most diseases and insect pests.
Weed Competitiveness Weeds are nature's band-aids, placed by the wisdom of creation to heal and restore damaged soils. When farmers husband the life of the soil, as they do in organic agriculture, the improved conditions dissuade many weeds and favour their crops. The crops, being healthier, are also better able to compete with those weeds that are present.
Lower Input Costs By definition, organic farming does not incur the use of expensive agrichemicals-they are not permitted. The greater resistance of their crops to pests and the diseases save farmers significantly in expensive insecticides, fungicides and other pesticides.
Drought Resistance Organically grown plants are more drought tolerant. Since chemical fertiliser is soluble, plants are forced to imbibe it every time they are thirsty for water. They can and do enjoy good growth as long as water is readily available. As soon as water becomes limited, the soluble nutrient salts in the cells of chemically-fed plants are unable to osmotically draw sufficient water to maintain safe dilution. They soon reach toxic concentrations, and the plant stops growing, hays off and dies earlier than it otherwise would have.
Added Value There is a discerning market of consumers who recognise the greater food value of organic produce and are willing to pay premium prices for it.
Disadvantages
Productivity Proponents of industrialised agriculture point to its superior productivity. In the short term, this yield is possible by expending massive inputs of chemicals and machinery, working over bland fields of a single crop (monoculture). However, over the longer time frame, productivity advantages dwindle.
Industrialised agriculture thrashes the land, and diminishes its soil life to the point where it can no longer function to convert available organic matter into soil fertility. Productivity begins to wane, and attempts to bolster it with increasing chemical inputs (common advice from farm consultants) has a similar effect to flogging a dead horse. Because it relies on living soil to build fertility, the benefits of organic farming for soil life is fundamental to its methods.
Organic farming benefits food production without destroying our environmental resources, ensuring sustainability for not only the current but also future generations.
Cultivation While their conventional counterparts may sow by direct drilling of seed into herbicide treated soils, organic farmers are usually at least partly dependent on cultivation to remove weeds prior to sowing. In contrast to cultivation, direct drilling does not mechanically disrupt soil structure and removes the risk of exposed soil being lost to wind or water erosion. This is a valid argument where farmers are working marginal quality soils. However, the structure of agrichemically-deadened soils is weakened by the corresponding loss of soil life and thus unable to maintain its integrity under occasional cultivation. So it is a circular argument.
Structurally sound (life-rich) soils may be cultivated regularly without significant damage, particularly if protected appropriately by windbreaks and Keyline soil conservation measures.
Even the need to cultivate may be questioned. After noticing rice thriving wild amongst weeds on roadsides, Japanese alternative agriculturalist Masanobu Fukuoka succeeded in establishing crops by broadcasting seed coated in clay onto untilled land.
GM Crops Organic growers do not use genetically modified or engineered food crops, some of which are engineered to tolerate herbicides (e.g., "Roundup Ready Canola") or resist pests (e.g., Bollworm resistant cotton).
According to a report from the Directorate-General for Agriculture of the European Commission, productivity gains attributed to GM crops are usually negligible when growing conditions, farmer experience and soil types are factored in, and are often in fact negative. The main advantage farmers using such crops gain is convenience only.
There are worrying indications that GM crops may be associated with harm to both human health and the environment. The main concern is that once they are released it is nigh impossible to "un-release" them.
Time Indeed, organic farming requires greater interaction between a farmer and his crop for observation, timely intervention and weed control for instance. It Is inherently more labour intensive than chemical/mechanical agriculture so that, naturally a single farmer can produce more crop using industrial methods than he or she could by solely organic methods.
Skill It requires considerably more skill to farm organically. However, because professional farming of any sort naturally imparts a close and observant relationship to living things. the best organic farmers are converted agrichemical farmers.
Organic farmers do not have some convenient chemical fix on the shelf for every problem they encounter. They have to engage careful observation and greater understanding in order to know how to tweak their farming system to correct the cause of the problem rather than simply putting a plaster over its effect.
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Tuesday, November 3, 2009
ORGANIC FARMING
ORGANIC FARMING
Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on crop rotation, green manure, compost, biological pest control, and mechanical cultivation to maintain soil productivity and control pests, excluding or strictly limiting the use of synthetic fertilisers and synthetic pesticides, plant growth regulators, livestock feed additives, and genetically modified organisms. Since 1990s the market for organic products has been growing at a rapid pace. This demand has driven a similar increase in organically managed farmland. Approximately 306,000 square kilometres (30.6 million hectares) worldwide are now farmed organically, representing approximately 2 per cent of total world farmland,The term holistic is often used to describe organic farming. Enhancing soil health is the cornerstone of organic farming. A variety of methods are employed, including crop rotation, green manure, cover cropping, application of compost, and mulching. Organic farmers also use certain processed fertilisers such as seed meal, and various mineral powders such as rock phosphate and greensand, a naturally occurring form of potash. These methods help to control erosion, promote biodiversity, and enhance the health of the soil.
Pest control targets animal pests (including insects), fungi, weeds and disease. Organic pest control involves the cumulative effect of many techniques, including, allowing for an acceptable level of pest damage, encouraging or even introducing beneficial organisms, careful crop selection and crop rotation, and mechanical controls such as row covers and traps. These techniques generally provide benefits in addition to pest control-soil protection and improvement, fertilisation, pollination, water conservation, season extension, etc.,-and these benefits are both complementary and cumulative in overall effect on farm health. Effective organic pest control requires a thorough understanding of pest life cycles and interactions. Weeds are controlled mechanically, thermically and through the use of covercrops and mulches.
Prospects and Limitations Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many nations, based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, an international umbrella organisation for organic organisations established in 1972.
In recent times, organic farming has come under attack from many quarters, even as awareness spreads that it is a more sustainable and healthier way' to live.
Critics question its capacity to feed the world while bogies are being raised about people having to return to the 'dark ages' of food shortage and starvation unless recourse is taken forthwith to intensive chemical farming.
It is believed that organic farming can feed the world and still have enough food left over. An extensive' study carried out in nearly 50 countries, both developed and developing, by a group of eight eminent scientists from the University of Michigan and Michigan State University concluded that the available food production was more than sufficient for humankind.
They estimated the calorific value of all food supply to be 2,786 kCals per capita per day, for the total volume of food supply available in 2001. They also went on to prove that, had the same land been farmed organically, the calorific value available in 2001 would have, in fact, been much higher, i.e., 4,380 kCals per capita per day.
Organic farming yields more and uses less land for the same output level. For example, the study showed that organic farms yield 1.312 times more grain products than non-organic farms.
It is also significant that yields from organic farms in developing countries are higher compared to non-organic farms.
In developing countries, many of which are land-starved, the fact that organic farms have higher yields signals that they should forthwith switch to organic farming.
A project was started in 1996 under the supervision of the Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BoANR) of Tigray, in Ethiopia, in partnership with the Mekele University, the local communities and their local administration. Project Tigray, demonstrated that the introduction of ecologically sound organic principles had very quick positive impacts on the productivity and well-being of farmers with small land holdin.gs.
The project also demonstrated that, for farmers, particularly those in marginal areas, who were not able to afford external inputs, "an organic production management system offered a real and affordable means to break out of poverty and obtain food security."
And the oft-cited argument that organic farming requires more land holds good only for cash crops.
This is the conclusion reached by the FAO at a conference in 2007, where it observed that higher yields through 0.00.organic farming were seen mainly in cash crops grown in ideal conditions.
Organic farming generally uses natural or naturally available means for farming.
The farm is tilled by oxen, legumes are grown for nitrogenfixing, and inter-cropping, crop rotation, composting, vermiculture, and so on, are practised to help retain moisture, fertilise the soil and protect the crop against pests. Energy use is minimal with organic farming.
Effective watershed management techniques practised on organic farms have been shown to reduce water use and raise the water table, all without poisoning the soil with chemical residues.
If organic farming were to be practised exclusively, some of the land being used for agriculture can actually be set aside for other uses, without any material impact on food supply.
Organic methods often require more labour, providing rural jobs but increasing costs to urban consumers. Most organic farm products use reduced pesticide claim but very few manage to eliminate the use of pesticide entirely.
While organic farming can, with extra cost, easily substitute chemical fertiliser with organic one, finding an alternative method for eliminating weeds as well as insects which feast on crops is difficult. Pest resistant GM crops are an alternative to pesticide use, but one which is unacceptable to many in the organic farming movement.
For weed elimination, the traditional method is to remove weeds by hand, which is still practiced in developing countries by small scale farmers. However, this has proven too costly in developed countries where labour is more expensive. One recent innovation in rice farming is to introduce ducks and fish to wet paddy fields, which eat both weeds and insects.
The main limiting macronutrient for agricultural production is biologically available nitrogen (N) in most areas.
The earlier mentioned Michigan University study showed that 140 million tonnes of additional nitrogen could have been fixed by the additional use of leguminous crops-58 million tonnes more than the amount of synthetic nitrogen in use.
Food production and distribution today are heavily subsidised, as is well known. Organic food, since it does not receive any of these subsidies, in comparison, comes across as being expensive. Such produce can be cost-competitive if it receives the same subsidies given to non-organically grown foods, and is perhaps likely to be cheaper in view of its inherently superior yield.
Thus, organic agriculture is a holistic production management system that promotes the health of the agro-ecosystem related to biodiversity, nutrient biological cycles, soil microbial and biochemical activity. The widespread adoption of organic farming in India is unlikely to materially impact the availability of food.
Given India's relative scarcity of land, large farmer population and fragmented land-holdings, the benefits of organic farming appear uniquely suited to Indian conditions.
In Madhya Pradesh, organic farming is being implemented under the guidance of a team of experts comprising scientists, environmentalists and food management personnel in 1565 villages.
"-"
Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on crop rotation, green manure, compost, biological pest control, and mechanical cultivation to maintain soil productivity and control pests, excluding or strictly limiting the use of synthetic fertilisers and synthetic pesticides, plant growth regulators, livestock feed additives, and genetically modified organisms. Since 1990s the market for organic products has been growing at a rapid pace. This demand has driven a similar increase in organically managed farmland. Approximately 306,000 square kilometres (30.6 million hectares) worldwide are now farmed organically, representing approximately 2 per cent of total world farmland,The term holistic is often used to describe organic farming. Enhancing soil health is the cornerstone of organic farming. A variety of methods are employed, including crop rotation, green manure, cover cropping, application of compost, and mulching. Organic farmers also use certain processed fertilisers such as seed meal, and various mineral powders such as rock phosphate and greensand, a naturally occurring form of potash. These methods help to control erosion, promote biodiversity, and enhance the health of the soil.
Pest control targets animal pests (including insects), fungi, weeds and disease. Organic pest control involves the cumulative effect of many techniques, including, allowing for an acceptable level of pest damage, encouraging or even introducing beneficial organisms, careful crop selection and crop rotation, and mechanical controls such as row covers and traps. These techniques generally provide benefits in addition to pest control-soil protection and improvement, fertilisation, pollination, water conservation, season extension, etc.,-and these benefits are both complementary and cumulative in overall effect on farm health. Effective organic pest control requires a thorough understanding of pest life cycles and interactions. Weeds are controlled mechanically, thermically and through the use of covercrops and mulches.
Prospects and Limitations Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many nations, based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, an international umbrella organisation for organic organisations established in 1972.
In recent times, organic farming has come under attack from many quarters, even as awareness spreads that it is a more sustainable and healthier way' to live.
Critics question its capacity to feed the world while bogies are being raised about people having to return to the 'dark ages' of food shortage and starvation unless recourse is taken forthwith to intensive chemical farming.
It is believed that organic farming can feed the world and still have enough food left over. An extensive' study carried out in nearly 50 countries, both developed and developing, by a group of eight eminent scientists from the University of Michigan and Michigan State University concluded that the available food production was more than sufficient for humankind.
They estimated the calorific value of all food supply to be 2,786 kCals per capita per day, for the total volume of food supply available in 2001. They also went on to prove that, had the same land been farmed organically, the calorific value available in 2001 would have, in fact, been much higher, i.e., 4,380 kCals per capita per day.
Organic farming yields more and uses less land for the same output level. For example, the study showed that organic farms yield 1.312 times more grain products than non-organic farms.
It is also significant that yields from organic farms in developing countries are higher compared to non-organic farms.
In developing countries, many of which are land-starved, the fact that organic farms have higher yields signals that they should forthwith switch to organic farming.
A project was started in 1996 under the supervision of the Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BoANR) of Tigray, in Ethiopia, in partnership with the Mekele University, the local communities and their local administration. Project Tigray, demonstrated that the introduction of ecologically sound organic principles had very quick positive impacts on the productivity and well-being of farmers with small land holdin.gs.
The project also demonstrated that, for farmers, particularly those in marginal areas, who were not able to afford external inputs, "an organic production management system offered a real and affordable means to break out of poverty and obtain food security."
And the oft-cited argument that organic farming requires more land holds good only for cash crops.
This is the conclusion reached by the FAO at a conference in 2007, where it observed that higher yields through 0.00.organic farming were seen mainly in cash crops grown in ideal conditions.
Organic farming generally uses natural or naturally available means for farming.
The farm is tilled by oxen, legumes are grown for nitrogenfixing, and inter-cropping, crop rotation, composting, vermiculture, and so on, are practised to help retain moisture, fertilise the soil and protect the crop against pests. Energy use is minimal with organic farming.
Effective watershed management techniques practised on organic farms have been shown to reduce water use and raise the water table, all without poisoning the soil with chemical residues.
If organic farming were to be practised exclusively, some of the land being used for agriculture can actually be set aside for other uses, without any material impact on food supply.
Organic methods often require more labour, providing rural jobs but increasing costs to urban consumers. Most organic farm products use reduced pesticide claim but very few manage to eliminate the use of pesticide entirely.
While organic farming can, with extra cost, easily substitute chemical fertiliser with organic one, finding an alternative method for eliminating weeds as well as insects which feast on crops is difficult. Pest resistant GM crops are an alternative to pesticide use, but one which is unacceptable to many in the organic farming movement.
For weed elimination, the traditional method is to remove weeds by hand, which is still practiced in developing countries by small scale farmers. However, this has proven too costly in developed countries where labour is more expensive. One recent innovation in rice farming is to introduce ducks and fish to wet paddy fields, which eat both weeds and insects.
The main limiting macronutrient for agricultural production is biologically available nitrogen (N) in most areas.
The earlier mentioned Michigan University study showed that 140 million tonnes of additional nitrogen could have been fixed by the additional use of leguminous crops-58 million tonnes more than the amount of synthetic nitrogen in use.
Food production and distribution today are heavily subsidised, as is well known. Organic food, since it does not receive any of these subsidies, in comparison, comes across as being expensive. Such produce can be cost-competitive if it receives the same subsidies given to non-organically grown foods, and is perhaps likely to be cheaper in view of its inherently superior yield.
Thus, organic agriculture is a holistic production management system that promotes the health of the agro-ecosystem related to biodiversity, nutrient biological cycles, soil microbial and biochemical activity. The widespread adoption of organic farming in India is unlikely to materially impact the availability of food.
Given India's relative scarcity of land, large farmer population and fragmented land-holdings, the benefits of organic farming appear uniquely suited to Indian conditions.
In Madhya Pradesh, organic farming is being implemented under the guidance of a team of experts comprising scientists, environmentalists and food management personnel in 1565 villages.
"-"
DISEASE CONTROL
DISEASE CONTROL Measures should be taken in time to help control the onset and spread of diseases in plants.
Rotation of Crops Pathogens (organisms causing disease) are specific to particular plants. Replacement of one crop by another crop reduces the chance of disease.
Rogueing Infected plants should be uprooted or burnt and removed.
Seed Treatment The seeds should be treated with dilute solution of fungicides and pesticides before sowing. This would eradicate the disease germs which stick on the seed surface.
Biological Control Predator insects may be released to kill the insects in a natural way.
Proper Manuring In cases such as rust, the excess or deficiency of nitrogen fertilisers increases the susceptibility of the plants. Hence, it is necessary to maintain the balance of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilisers.
Using Chemicals Crop losses can be reduced by the use of pesticides, fungicides, and insecticides. But they must be used with care. They should be biodegradable.
Systemic Insecticides These compounds when applied to the leaves, stems and sometimes the roots of plants, are absorbed and translocated in the plants in the course of normal nutrition. Their concentrations are safe for the plant but fatal for the insects feeding on the plants.
Weed killers Herbicides used to control selectively unwanted vegetation on agricultural land may act either selectively, or they may be applied before the crop emerges.
Rotation of Crops Pathogens (organisms causing disease) are specific to particular plants. Replacement of one crop by another crop reduces the chance of disease.
Rogueing Infected plants should be uprooted or burnt and removed.
Seed Treatment The seeds should be treated with dilute solution of fungicides and pesticides before sowing. This would eradicate the disease germs which stick on the seed surface.
Biological Control Predator insects may be released to kill the insects in a natural way.
Proper Manuring In cases such as rust, the excess or deficiency of nitrogen fertilisers increases the susceptibility of the plants. Hence, it is necessary to maintain the balance of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilisers.
Using Chemicals Crop losses can be reduced by the use of pesticides, fungicides, and insecticides. But they must be used with care. They should be biodegradable.
Systemic Insecticides These compounds when applied to the leaves, stems and sometimes the roots of plants, are absorbed and translocated in the plants in the course of normal nutrition. Their concentrations are safe for the plant but fatal for the insects feeding on the plants.
Weed killers Herbicides used to control selectively unwanted vegetation on agricultural land may act either selectively, or they may be applied before the crop emerges.
PLANT DISEASES
PLANT DISEASES
The diseases in plants are caused by several agents and affect different parts. Some of the important diseases and their agents are given below.
FUNGAL DISEASES
1. Rust of wheat-black, brown, yellow; carried by air. 2. Sesame leaf spot or Brown leaf spot of rice; seed
borne.
3. Red rot of sugarcane; seed-borne.
4. Ergot of bajra (pearl millet); seed-borne.
5. Green ear disease of bajra; soil-borne.
6. Smut of bajra; soil-borne.
7. Tikka disease of groundnut; soil-borne.
8. Blast of rice; air-borne.
9. Coffee rust; air-borne.
10. Late blight of potato; soil-borne.
11. Downy mildew affecting grapes, bajra, crucifers
like radish, cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, mustard.
12. White rust affects radish, turnip, cabbage, cauli
flower, etc.
13. Powdery mildew affects wheat.
14. Kamal bunt of wheat.
15. Wilt of pigeon pea.
16. Wilt of cotton.
17. Footrot of paddy.
18. Footrot of papaya.
19. Bean rust-affecting black gram, rajmah, etc. 20. Loose smut of barley.
VIRAL DISEASES
1. Potato mosaic.
2. Tobacco mosaic.
3. Bunchy top of banana.
4. Leaf curl of tobacco, tomato, papaya.
5. Carrot red leaf.
6. Potato leaf roll.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
1. Blight of rice; seed-borne.
2. Black arm or angular leaf spot of cotton; seed-borne. 3. Tundu disease of wheat.
4. Crown gall of plUID, cherry, peach, apple, almond,
pear, etc.
5. Brown rot of potato.
6. Ring rot of potato.
NEMATODE
1. Root knot of tomato (also potato, chilli, brinjal,
radish, etc.)
2. Citrus die back.
3. Ear-cockle of wheat.
PLANT PESTS
1. Stem borer of rice.
2. Brown plant hopper of rice.
3. Spotted bollworm of cotton.
4. Pink bollworm of cotton.
5. Coconut caterpillar.
6. Gundhy bug or paddy bug.
.
The diseases in plants are caused by several agents and affect different parts. Some of the important diseases and their agents are given below.
FUNGAL DISEASES
1. Rust of wheat-black, brown, yellow; carried by air. 2. Sesame leaf spot or Brown leaf spot of rice; seed
borne.
3. Red rot of sugarcane; seed-borne.
4. Ergot of bajra (pearl millet); seed-borne.
5. Green ear disease of bajra; soil-borne.
6. Smut of bajra; soil-borne.
7. Tikka disease of groundnut; soil-borne.
8. Blast of rice; air-borne.
9. Coffee rust; air-borne.
10. Late blight of potato; soil-borne.
11. Downy mildew affecting grapes, bajra, crucifers
like radish, cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, mustard.
12. White rust affects radish, turnip, cabbage, cauli
flower, etc.
13. Powdery mildew affects wheat.
14. Kamal bunt of wheat.
15. Wilt of pigeon pea.
16. Wilt of cotton.
17. Footrot of paddy.
18. Footrot of papaya.
19. Bean rust-affecting black gram, rajmah, etc. 20. Loose smut of barley.
VIRAL DISEASES
1. Potato mosaic.
2. Tobacco mosaic.
3. Bunchy top of banana.
4. Leaf curl of tobacco, tomato, papaya.
5. Carrot red leaf.
6. Potato leaf roll.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
1. Blight of rice; seed-borne.
2. Black arm or angular leaf spot of cotton; seed-borne. 3. Tundu disease of wheat.
4. Crown gall of plUID, cherry, peach, apple, almond,
pear, etc.
5. Brown rot of potato.
6. Ring rot of potato.
NEMATODE
1. Root knot of tomato (also potato, chilli, brinjal,
radish, etc.)
2. Citrus die back.
3. Ear-cockle of wheat.
PLANT PESTS
1. Stem borer of rice.
2. Brown plant hopper of rice.
3. Spotted bollworm of cotton.
4. Pink bollworm of cotton.
5. Coconut caterpillar.
6. Gundhy bug or paddy bug.
.
CONSERVING WATER
CONSERVING WATER Irrigation need not be wasteful. Water may be saved by using the following methods of irrigation.
Drip Irrigation Drip irrigation involves the slow application of water, drop by drop, to the root-zone of a crop. It is also called 'trickle irrigation'. This method of irrigation was initiated in Israel and is now being tried in other countries, including India.
In this method, water is used very economically, since losses due to deep percolation and surface evaporation are reduced to the minimum. This method is, therefore, very much suited to the arid regions of India and is being followed for irrigating orchard crops at present. The successful growing of orchards even on saline soils has been made possible by the drip system of irrigation. Drip irrigation can also be used for applying fertilisers in solution.
Work is in progress in India to design, and to adapt drip irrigation to conditions in this country. The initial high cost of equipment and its maintenance are the major limitations of this system. It may still prove to be cheaper than the sprinkler system, especially for orchards and other widely spaced crops.
Sprinkler Irrigation Sprinkler irrigation is a system whereby water pressure is applied to the surface of any crop or soil in the form of a thin spray from above. This method is advantageous, as water can be applied at a desired rate and a uniform distribution of water and high efficiency can be ensured. The sprinkler system can be adopted in case of almost all crops, especially cash and orchard crops. The system is especially suited to shallow sandy soils of uneven topography, where levelling is not practicable. It is useful in effective leaching of salt in saline soils, cooling the crops during high temperature, and controlling frost during freezing temperatures.
The sprinkler system is classified on. the basis of the portability of its equipment as (i) portable, (ii) semiportable, and (iii) stationary or permanent. The stationary system is more expensive than the portable one. The portable and semi-port~ble systems are again divided into manual (hand-moved) system and power-moved system. There are self-propelled sprinkler systems which move laterally or radially around a central pivot feeding line. The portable systems can be a useful mode of irrigation in an area ranging from 3-4 hectare to 50-60 hectare or more.
There are boom type sprinkler systems which employ one boom sprinkler head on each lateral. These systems irrigate an area of 75 to 100 ID radius.
Drip Irrigation Drip irrigation involves the slow application of water, drop by drop, to the root-zone of a crop. It is also called 'trickle irrigation'. This method of irrigation was initiated in Israel and is now being tried in other countries, including India.
In this method, water is used very economically, since losses due to deep percolation and surface evaporation are reduced to the minimum. This method is, therefore, very much suited to the arid regions of India and is being followed for irrigating orchard crops at present. The successful growing of orchards even on saline soils has been made possible by the drip system of irrigation. Drip irrigation can also be used for applying fertilisers in solution.
Work is in progress in India to design, and to adapt drip irrigation to conditions in this country. The initial high cost of equipment and its maintenance are the major limitations of this system. It may still prove to be cheaper than the sprinkler system, especially for orchards and other widely spaced crops.
Sprinkler Irrigation Sprinkler irrigation is a system whereby water pressure is applied to the surface of any crop or soil in the form of a thin spray from above. This method is advantageous, as water can be applied at a desired rate and a uniform distribution of water and high efficiency can be ensured. The sprinkler system can be adopted in case of almost all crops, especially cash and orchard crops. The system is especially suited to shallow sandy soils of uneven topography, where levelling is not practicable. It is useful in effective leaching of salt in saline soils, cooling the crops during high temperature, and controlling frost during freezing temperatures.
The sprinkler system is classified on. the basis of the portability of its equipment as (i) portable, (ii) semiportable, and (iii) stationary or permanent. The stationary system is more expensive than the portable one. The portable and semi-port~ble systems are again divided into manual (hand-moved) system and power-moved system. There are self-propelled sprinkler systems which move laterally or radially around a central pivot feeding line. The portable systems can be a useful mode of irrigation in an area ranging from 3-4 hectare to 50-60 hectare or more.
There are boom type sprinkler systems which employ one boom sprinkler head on each lateral. These systems irrigate an area of 75 to 100 ID radius.
DRAINAGE AND LAND RECLAMATION
DRAINAGE AND LAND RECLAMATION Drainage is necessary to remove excess water from the soil as well as to improve soil porosity and aeration. Soil acidity is reduced by drainage.
Drainage may be carried out by a network of pipes, open drains and ditches. Low-lying areas bordering the sea have been reclaimed by employing drainage techniques in the Netherlands and the fens of Britain. Dykes and sea-walls are constructed to keep out the water, and water remaining in the enclosed land is pumped out by pumps (windmills were used in the past). The polders of the Netherlands are reclaimed farmland.
Drainage may be carried out by a network of pipes, open drains and ditches. Low-lying areas bordering the sea have been reclaimed by employing drainage techniques in the Netherlands and the fens of Britain. Dykes and sea-walls are constructed to keep out the water, and water remaining in the enclosed land is pumped out by pumps (windmills were used in the past). The polders of the Netherlands are reclaimed farmland.
Monday, November 2, 2009
Multipurpose Projects
Multipurpose Projects A multipurpose project is a river valley project which serves a number of purposes all at once such as:
(i) Storage of water for future use
(ii) Supply of water for irrigation
(ill) Generation of hydroelectricity
(iv) Control of floods
(v) Checking of soil erosion (through afforestation and control of water flow)
(vi) Development of inl~nd navigation (vii) Reclamation of water-logged lands, and thereby
control of malaria
(viii) Fish culture
(ix) Development of riversides as recreation spots and health resorts.
Several irrigation and multipurpose projects have been undertaken in independent India.
Nagarjunasagar Located on the Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh; conceived for the unified development of irrigation, flood control and power generation.
Tllngabhadra On Tungabhadra river-a tributary of the Krishna. Joint project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka for irrigation and electricity.
Poochampad On River Godavari, a masonry dam in Andhra Pradesh for irrigation.
Gandak Project On River Gandak; Bihar and Uttar IPradesh are the participating states. Nepal has also been getting power and irrigation benefits after 1959.
Kosi Project On Kosi river in Bihar; for irrigation, flood control and electricity. In 1965, a barrage was constructed near Hanumannagar in Nepal.
Kakrapara Project On Tapi river in Gujarat. Conceived for irrigation and power purposes.
Ukai Multipurpose Project Located on Tapi river in Gujarat.
Mahi Project On Mahi river in Gujarat. It has two stages; stage I consists of a masonry pick-up weir at Wanakbori village. Stage II envisages construction of a 1,430 m long and 58 m high dam near Kadma. It has high irrigation potentialities.
Ghataprabha Valley Development Conceived for harnessing water of River Ghataprabha for irrigation in Belgaum and Bijapur districts of Karnataka.
Malaprabha Project Located on Malaprabha river in Belgaum district of Karnataka.
Upper Krishna Project In Karnataka across the Krishna river. A dam is being constructed at Almatti.
Tawa Project Construction of reservoir across Tawa river, a tributary of the Narmada in Hoshangabad district (Madhya Pradesh).
Chambal Project On River Chambal. Jointly executed by Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. In the first stage the Gandhi Sagar Dam and Kota barrage were completed. In the second stage, Rana Pratap Sagar Dam (112 MW capacity) was constructed. Third stage comprises of Jawahar Sagar Dam (99 MW power station).
Rajghat Dam Project On Betwa river. An inter-state project of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Bhima Project On Bhima river in Maharashtra. Envisages construction of two dams--one on Pawana river and another across Krishna river. The work has been completed.
Jayakwadi Project On River Godavari 'in Maharashtra. First stage includes construction of an earthen dam; second stage envisages construction of canal across Sindphana river.
Narmada Project (Indira Sagar Dam) On Narmada river; if completed, world's largest river valley project. Jointventure of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The project has been under controversy.
Sardar Sarovar Project On Narmada river in Gujarat. Inter-state project benefiting Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. It is embroiled in controversy.
Hirakud Project On Mahanadi river in Orissa. A multipurpose project; world's longest mainstream dam.
Bhakra Nanga/ A joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. This is a straight gravity dam on the Satluj river at Bhakra. Multipurpose project.
Beas Project Joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. It consists of the Beas-Satluj link, earth-rockfill Pong Dam on Beas river; Beas transmission system.
Thein Dam Earthen dam on River Ravi in Punjab. Rajasthan Canal Project (Indira Gandhi Canal) Provides irrigation facility to north-western region of Rajasthan.
Parambikulam Aliyar Joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It envisages harnessing the water of six rivers located in Annamalai Hills and two in the plains.
Sarda Sahayak Project Located in Uttar Pradesh across the River Ganga.
RamgangaProject Located in Chuisot stream in Uttar Pradesh. The project is for irrigation and power. The project will supply 200 cusecs of water for Delhi water supply scheme.
Banasagar Project On Son river, in pursuance of an interstate agreement among Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Farakka Project In West Bengal, taken up for the twin objectives of preservation and maintenance of Kolkata port and for improving the navigability of the Hooghly. The project consists of a barrage across the Ganga at Farakka; a barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirathi; a feeder canal (39 km long) taking off from the right bank of Ganga at Farakka and falling into Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage. Rail-cum-road bridge over the Farakka provides a communication link for Assam, West Bengal and rest of India.
Knngasabati Project On Kangasabati and Kumari rivers in West Bengal. It envisages the construction of earth dams.
Mayurakshi Project It is in West Bengal, comprising Canada dam and meant for power and irrigation purposes.
Damodar Valley Project On Damodar river. Inter-state project of Bihar and West Bengal. The project provides irrigation facility, flood control, power generation and soil conservation measures. Important multipurpose dams are Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon and Panchet. Three thermal power stations at Bokaro (I and II units also working), Chandrapura and Durgapur. Main supplier of power in Bihar and West Bengal.
Dul Hasti The project is part of the programme of cascade development of estimated 6,000 MW of hydropower potential on the River Chenab in Jammu and Kashmir. Chukka Project A joint venture of India and Bhutan. It is a turnkey project initiated by Indian government.
Salal Project Commenced in Jammu and Kashmir on River Chenab for irrigation and power generation, after agreement with Pakistan was reached.
(i) Storage of water for future use
(ii) Supply of water for irrigation
(ill) Generation of hydroelectricity
(iv) Control of floods
(v) Checking of soil erosion (through afforestation and control of water flow)
(vi) Development of inl~nd navigation (vii) Reclamation of water-logged lands, and thereby
control of malaria
(viii) Fish culture
(ix) Development of riversides as recreation spots and health resorts.
Several irrigation and multipurpose projects have been undertaken in independent India.
Nagarjunasagar Located on the Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh; conceived for the unified development of irrigation, flood control and power generation.
Tllngabhadra On Tungabhadra river-a tributary of the Krishna. Joint project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka for irrigation and electricity.
Poochampad On River Godavari, a masonry dam in Andhra Pradesh for irrigation.
Gandak Project On River Gandak; Bihar and Uttar IPradesh are the participating states. Nepal has also been getting power and irrigation benefits after 1959.
Kosi Project On Kosi river in Bihar; for irrigation, flood control and electricity. In 1965, a barrage was constructed near Hanumannagar in Nepal.
Kakrapara Project On Tapi river in Gujarat. Conceived for irrigation and power purposes.
Ukai Multipurpose Project Located on Tapi river in Gujarat.
Mahi Project On Mahi river in Gujarat. It has two stages; stage I consists of a masonry pick-up weir at Wanakbori village. Stage II envisages construction of a 1,430 m long and 58 m high dam near Kadma. It has high irrigation potentialities.
Ghataprabha Valley Development Conceived for harnessing water of River Ghataprabha for irrigation in Belgaum and Bijapur districts of Karnataka.
Malaprabha Project Located on Malaprabha river in Belgaum district of Karnataka.
Upper Krishna Project In Karnataka across the Krishna river. A dam is being constructed at Almatti.
Tawa Project Construction of reservoir across Tawa river, a tributary of the Narmada in Hoshangabad district (Madhya Pradesh).
Chambal Project On River Chambal. Jointly executed by Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. In the first stage the Gandhi Sagar Dam and Kota barrage were completed. In the second stage, Rana Pratap Sagar Dam (112 MW capacity) was constructed. Third stage comprises of Jawahar Sagar Dam (99 MW power station).
Rajghat Dam Project On Betwa river. An inter-state project of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Bhima Project On Bhima river in Maharashtra. Envisages construction of two dams--one on Pawana river and another across Krishna river. The work has been completed.
Jayakwadi Project On River Godavari 'in Maharashtra. First stage includes construction of an earthen dam; second stage envisages construction of canal across Sindphana river.
Narmada Project (Indira Sagar Dam) On Narmada river; if completed, world's largest river valley project. Jointventure of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The project has been under controversy.
Sardar Sarovar Project On Narmada river in Gujarat. Inter-state project benefiting Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. It is embroiled in controversy.
Hirakud Project On Mahanadi river in Orissa. A multipurpose project; world's longest mainstream dam.
Bhakra Nanga/ A joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. This is a straight gravity dam on the Satluj river at Bhakra. Multipurpose project.
Beas Project Joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. It consists of the Beas-Satluj link, earth-rockfill Pong Dam on Beas river; Beas transmission system.
Thein Dam Earthen dam on River Ravi in Punjab. Rajasthan Canal Project (Indira Gandhi Canal) Provides irrigation facility to north-western region of Rajasthan.
Parambikulam Aliyar Joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It envisages harnessing the water of six rivers located in Annamalai Hills and two in the plains.
Sarda Sahayak Project Located in Uttar Pradesh across the River Ganga.
RamgangaProject Located in Chuisot stream in Uttar Pradesh. The project is for irrigation and power. The project will supply 200 cusecs of water for Delhi water supply scheme.
Banasagar Project On Son river, in pursuance of an interstate agreement among Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Farakka Project In West Bengal, taken up for the twin objectives of preservation and maintenance of Kolkata port and for improving the navigability of the Hooghly. The project consists of a barrage across the Ganga at Farakka; a barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirathi; a feeder canal (39 km long) taking off from the right bank of Ganga at Farakka and falling into Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage. Rail-cum-road bridge over the Farakka provides a communication link for Assam, West Bengal and rest of India.
Knngasabati Project On Kangasabati and Kumari rivers in West Bengal. It envisages the construction of earth dams.
Mayurakshi Project It is in West Bengal, comprising Canada dam and meant for power and irrigation purposes.
Damodar Valley Project On Damodar river. Inter-state project of Bihar and West Bengal. The project provides irrigation facility, flood control, power generation and soil conservation measures. Important multipurpose dams are Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon and Panchet. Three thermal power stations at Bokaro (I and II units also working), Chandrapura and Durgapur. Main supplier of power in Bihar and West Bengal.
Dul Hasti The project is part of the programme of cascade development of estimated 6,000 MW of hydropower potential on the River Chenab in Jammu and Kashmir. Chukka Project A joint venture of India and Bhutan. It is a turnkey project initiated by Indian government.
Salal Project Commenced in Jammu and Kashmir on River Chenab for irrigation and power generation, after agreement with Pakistan was reached.
Canal Irrigation in other States
Punjab and Haryana Due to flat nature of the ground, perennial flow of rivers and the fertile alluvial soil, the canal system is mostly suitable for these states. A special feature of the system is that all the rivers have been inter-connected by means of canals so that the water resources of these are pooled together for maximum utilisation. The Upper Bari Doab Canal, first of its kind in India, was completed in 1859 over the Ravi river at Madhopur; The main canal and its distributaries irrigate land in Amritsar and Gurdaspur district~. The Western Yamuna Canal, one of the oldest canal systems in India, is constructed at Tejwala In Haryana. It irrigates land in the districts of Patiala in Punjab and Ambala, Rohtak, Kamal, Jind and Hissar districts. The Sirhind Canal was constructed in 1884. It takes off from the Satluj at Ropar, and irrigates over six lakh hectare of land in the districts of Ludhiana, Ferozepur, and Patiala in Punjab and Jind (Haryana). The Bhakra Canal, constructed in 1964, irrigates large tracts of agricultural land in Punjab and Haryana. It takes water from the Bhakra dam. The Nangal Canal is a continuation of the ~hakra canal and irrigates land in the districts of Jafandhar, Ferozepur, Ludhiana, Patiala.
Uttar Pradesh In Uttar Pradesh canal irrigation is gaining importance day by day and is significant in drought prone areas. The Upper and Lower Ganga Canals are the oldest and the most dependable canal systems in Uttar Pradesh. Upper Ganga canal takes off from Ganga near Hardwar while the Lower Ganga canal starts from Narora. The Eastern Yamuna Canal takes off from River Yamuna near Faizabad and irrigates land in the districts of Muzaffamagar, Saharanpur, Meerut and Delhi. The Agra Canal takes off frbm the Yamuna at Okhla and irrigates land in the districts of Mathura, Gurgaon, Agra, Bharatpur and Delhi. The Sharda Canal takes off from River Sharda at Baubasa. This old canal irrigates large tracts of Gorakhpur, Lucknow, Faizabad districts.
Bihar In Bihar the canal system is moderately developed. Most of the canals are of the perennial type. The Sone Canals derive their water from a
weir across River Sone near Dehri and this water is utilised for irrigating land in the Ganga, Patna and Shahabad districts. The Triveni Canal takes off from River Triveni and
is used in Champaran district.
West Bengal Canal systems in the state were developed only during the First Five Year Plan. Most of the canals in the state were constructed by the Damodar Valley Corporation. Two other barrages have been constructed on the Mayurakshi, Kangsabati and Tista rivers.
Orissa and Andhra Pradesh The famous Hirakud project and Mahanadi canal are supplying ample irrigation water to Puri, Cuttack and Sambalpur districts in Orissa. In Andhra Pradesh, Krishna and Godavari, two large river systems, are providing ample water for irrigational purpose.
Kerala Malampuzha canal system in Palakkad district, Periyar canal in Kozhikode district, and Pamba canal in Kollam district are the major irrigational canals.
Rajasthan Here the rainfall is scanty and the area is drought prone. A majDr share of Bhakra canal water flows through Rajasthan. The oldest canal system of Rajasthan is the Ganganagar canal. Other noted canal systems are Jawai canal, Chambal projects and the newly constructed Rajasthan Canal Project (Indira Gandhi canals).
The detrimental effects of canal irrigation, however, make canals a problematic source. Overflooding of canals, coupled with the absence of lining of canal beds, leads to the seepage of water into adjoining water tables; and if the water table is close to the surface, to salinisation of soil cover through capillary action. The saturation of water table leads to waterlogging and subsequently to the swamping of land, leaving it unsuitable for cultivation or habitation. Waterlogging and salination have left six million hectare area as waste, a third of it lying in the northern plains.
Scientific water management practices are required to overcome such effects. Drip-irrigation and sprinklers are two such methods. The Command Areas Development Programme has efficient and scientific water management as one of the objectives.
Uttar Pradesh In Uttar Pradesh canal irrigation is gaining importance day by day and is significant in drought prone areas. The Upper and Lower Ganga Canals are the oldest and the most dependable canal systems in Uttar Pradesh. Upper Ganga canal takes off from Ganga near Hardwar while the Lower Ganga canal starts from Narora. The Eastern Yamuna Canal takes off from River Yamuna near Faizabad and irrigates land in the districts of Muzaffamagar, Saharanpur, Meerut and Delhi. The Agra Canal takes off frbm the Yamuna at Okhla and irrigates land in the districts of Mathura, Gurgaon, Agra, Bharatpur and Delhi. The Sharda Canal takes off from River Sharda at Baubasa. This old canal irrigates large tracts of Gorakhpur, Lucknow, Faizabad districts.
Bihar In Bihar the canal system is moderately developed. Most of the canals are of the perennial type. The Sone Canals derive their water from a
weir across River Sone near Dehri and this water is utilised for irrigating land in the Ganga, Patna and Shahabad districts. The Triveni Canal takes off from River Triveni and
is used in Champaran district.
West Bengal Canal systems in the state were developed only during the First Five Year Plan. Most of the canals in the state were constructed by the Damodar Valley Corporation. Two other barrages have been constructed on the Mayurakshi, Kangsabati and Tista rivers.
Orissa and Andhra Pradesh The famous Hirakud project and Mahanadi canal are supplying ample irrigation water to Puri, Cuttack and Sambalpur districts in Orissa. In Andhra Pradesh, Krishna and Godavari, two large river systems, are providing ample water for irrigational purpose.
Kerala Malampuzha canal system in Palakkad district, Periyar canal in Kozhikode district, and Pamba canal in Kollam district are the major irrigational canals.
Rajasthan Here the rainfall is scanty and the area is drought prone. A majDr share of Bhakra canal water flows through Rajasthan. The oldest canal system of Rajasthan is the Ganganagar canal. Other noted canal systems are Jawai canal, Chambal projects and the newly constructed Rajasthan Canal Project (Indira Gandhi canals).
The detrimental effects of canal irrigation, however, make canals a problematic source. Overflooding of canals, coupled with the absence of lining of canal beds, leads to the seepage of water into adjoining water tables; and if the water table is close to the surface, to salinisation of soil cover through capillary action. The saturation of water table leads to waterlogging and subsequently to the swamping of land, leaving it unsuitable for cultivation or habitation. Waterlogging and salination have left six million hectare area as waste, a third of it lying in the northern plains.
Scientific water management practices are required to overcome such effects. Drip-irrigation and sprinklers are two such methods. The Command Areas Development Programme has efficient and scientific water management as one of the objectives.
Sources of Irrigation
Sources of Irrigation Depending upon the availability of surface or groundwater, topography, soil, rainfall conditions and rivers, various types of irrigation are practised in India.
Mostly prevalent in uneven and relatively rocky plateau of peninsular India, tanks are the most popular method of irrigation in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
In India most of the tanks are small in size and built by individuals or groups of farmers by raising bunds across seasonal streams. About 11 to 14 per cent of the net irrigated area in the country is normally under tank irrigation.
Tank irrigation in the Deccan and South India is highly developed compared to tank irrigation in other regions because the land is rocky and the soil is not porous. Rainwater cannot sink into the ground, making it difficult to dig wells. The digging of canals is also difficult and expensive on the rocky surface of the peninsular plateau. As the rivers of South India are seasonal, the construction of perennial canals is not feasible. The hard rocks of the region do not allow the water of tanks to seep through. Hence tank irrigation has been successful there. But there are drawbacks in tankirrigation: tanks cover large areas of cultivable land; evaporation of water is relatively rapid due to large expanse of shallow water in the tanks; tanks do not ensure a perennial supply of water.
Well irrigation is an important source ofirrigation. The water in wells is obtained from the subsoil and has to be lifted by suitable devices, e.g., manual or animal labour or by pumping sets run by power. Wells (including tubewells) account for more than 30 million acres (more than 55 per cent of total irrigated area). Well irrigation is most common in alluvial plain areas where the water table is fairly high. Owing to the soft nature of the soil, wells are easy to dig and the yield of crops from the
land after irrigation is rewarding.
The states with 50 per cent or more of the irrigated area under wells and tube-wells are Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra. Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu also have a sizeable area under well irrigation.
The major changes in respect of well irrigation during the last few decades include change from dug-wells to tubewells and large scale replacement of animal power with commercial power (electricity or diesel) for lifting water. Tamil Nadu has the largest number of electrified pumpsets. Now, waterpumps running on solar energy are also being encouraged.
Canal irrigation is also an important source of irrigation accounting for above 30 per cent of the net irrigated area. Canal irrigation is possible in areas which are extensive plains and are drained by well distributed perennial rivers, such as the northern plains, coastal plains, deltas (where even the distributaries can act as canals), and the broad valleys of the peninsula.
Inundation canals are those which are taken out without constructing dams or 'bunds' and get water only when the main stream is flooded-thus, they have limited validity. Now, the efforts are on to convert them to perennial systems. The post-independence period saw the construction of canals as a part of the multi-purpose projects, e.g., Bhakra-Nangal (Punjab), Damodar Valley Gharkhand and West Bengal) and the Nagarjunasagar (Karnataka) projects.
The initial costs of constructing canals is high, but once constructed, the operational cost is minimum, which makes them a cheap source of irrigation in the long run. Canal irrigation is important in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, coastal Orissa and coastal Andhra Pradesh. The canals are almost absent in hilly states like Kerala and the North-East.
Mostly prevalent in uneven and relatively rocky plateau of peninsular India, tanks are the most popular method of irrigation in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
In India most of the tanks are small in size and built by individuals or groups of farmers by raising bunds across seasonal streams. About 11 to 14 per cent of the net irrigated area in the country is normally under tank irrigation.
Tank irrigation in the Deccan and South India is highly developed compared to tank irrigation in other regions because the land is rocky and the soil is not porous. Rainwater cannot sink into the ground, making it difficult to dig wells. The digging of canals is also difficult and expensive on the rocky surface of the peninsular plateau. As the rivers of South India are seasonal, the construction of perennial canals is not feasible. The hard rocks of the region do not allow the water of tanks to seep through. Hence tank irrigation has been successful there. But there are drawbacks in tankirrigation: tanks cover large areas of cultivable land; evaporation of water is relatively rapid due to large expanse of shallow water in the tanks; tanks do not ensure a perennial supply of water.
Well irrigation is an important source ofirrigation. The water in wells is obtained from the subsoil and has to be lifted by suitable devices, e.g., manual or animal labour or by pumping sets run by power. Wells (including tubewells) account for more than 30 million acres (more than 55 per cent of total irrigated area). Well irrigation is most common in alluvial plain areas where the water table is fairly high. Owing to the soft nature of the soil, wells are easy to dig and the yield of crops from the
land after irrigation is rewarding.
The states with 50 per cent or more of the irrigated area under wells and tube-wells are Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra. Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu also have a sizeable area under well irrigation.
The major changes in respect of well irrigation during the last few decades include change from dug-wells to tubewells and large scale replacement of animal power with commercial power (electricity or diesel) for lifting water. Tamil Nadu has the largest number of electrified pumpsets. Now, waterpumps running on solar energy are also being encouraged.
Canal irrigation is also an important source of irrigation accounting for above 30 per cent of the net irrigated area. Canal irrigation is possible in areas which are extensive plains and are drained by well distributed perennial rivers, such as the northern plains, coastal plains, deltas (where even the distributaries can act as canals), and the broad valleys of the peninsula.
Inundation canals are those which are taken out without constructing dams or 'bunds' and get water only when the main stream is flooded-thus, they have limited validity. Now, the efforts are on to convert them to perennial systems. The post-independence period saw the construction of canals as a part of the multi-purpose projects, e.g., Bhakra-Nangal (Punjab), Damodar Valley Gharkhand and West Bengal) and the Nagarjunasagar (Karnataka) projects.
The initial costs of constructing canals is high, but once constructed, the operational cost is minimum, which makes them a cheap source of irrigation in the long run. Canal irrigation is important in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, coastal Orissa and coastal Andhra Pradesh. The canals are almost absent in hilly states like Kerala and the North-East.
IRRIGATION IN INDIA
IRRIGATION IN INDIA India requires irrigation to offset the variability and unequal distribution of rainfall, meet crop and soil requirements, increase production by facilitating double cropping, and promote high-yielding varieties which require water, and ensure optimum use of river water resources.
Irrigation works are classified as:
Major Irrigation: Culturable command area (CCA) more than 10,000 hectares.
Medium Irrigation: Culturable command area more than 2,000 hectares but less than 10,000 hectares.
Minor Irrigation: Culturable command area of not more than 2,000 hectares.
Whereas major and medium irrigation works are meant for tapping surface water (e.g., rivers), minor irrigation mainly involves groundwater development, e.g., tubewell, boring works, etc.
Seen in the light of irrigation intensity, the following spatial pattern emerges.
States with net irrigated area as 60 per cent or above of the net sown area These are Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, the Krishna-Godavari delta and the Cauvery delta continuing upto Chennai. These are the areas of Green Revolution.
States with net irrigated area as 30 per cent to 60 per cent of the net sown area These regions include the rest of the Ganga plains, the Kashmir valley, parts of western Maharashtra, the east coast including West Bengal.
States with net irrigated area as below 15 per cent of the net sown area These regions include the west coast: the whole of the interior peninsula, southem Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, interior Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, the plains of Rajasthan and Gujarat, and the North-East.
Thus, there is inadequate irrigation in the arid and semi-arid regions and in the high rainfall regions of the North-East.
Irrigation works are classified as:
Major Irrigation: Culturable command area (CCA) more than 10,000 hectares.
Medium Irrigation: Culturable command area more than 2,000 hectares but less than 10,000 hectares.
Minor Irrigation: Culturable command area of not more than 2,000 hectares.
Whereas major and medium irrigation works are meant for tapping surface water (e.g., rivers), minor irrigation mainly involves groundwater development, e.g., tubewell, boring works, etc.
Seen in the light of irrigation intensity, the following spatial pattern emerges.
States with net irrigated area as 60 per cent or above of the net sown area These are Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, the Krishna-Godavari delta and the Cauvery delta continuing upto Chennai. These are the areas of Green Revolution.
States with net irrigated area as 30 per cent to 60 per cent of the net sown area These regions include the rest of the Ganga plains, the Kashmir valley, parts of western Maharashtra, the east coast including West Bengal.
States with net irrigated area as below 15 per cent of the net sown area These regions include the west coast: the whole of the interior peninsula, southem Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, interior Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, the plains of Rajasthan and Gujarat, and the North-East.
Thus, there is inadequate irrigation in the arid and semi-arid regions and in the high rainfall regions of the North-East.
WATER MANAGEMENT
WATER MANAGEMENT
Land can be improved by regulating the water supply: the soil aeration can be improved, bacterial activity stimulated, crop yields improved. Further, irrigation and draining can bring marginal lands, such as deserts and swamps, into agricultural use.
IRRIGATION If natural precipitation cannot meet the moisture requirements of plants, an artificial supply of water becomes necessary. This is irrigation. Irrigation has certain advantages: (i) regular and reliable supply of water; (ii) supply of silt if irrigation is from river waters; (iii) yearround cultivation; (iv) reduction of soil salinity in .deserts (but if water is allowed to evaporate from the fields, salinity will increase).
Types of Irrigation Lifting devices include wells, water wheels and, now, pumps. Basin irrigation involves letting flood water collect in basin-like fields on either side of the river. It was an ancient practice in Egypt. In USA, it is practised on canal water to grow paddy. Tanks are small reservoirs storing rain water. Canals can lead water from rivers or storage lakes to agricultural lands, and form an important feature of irrigated lands. Inundation canals lead water from rivers at times of flood, while perennial canals are fed by large dams or barrages and supply water all round the year. Overhead irrigation is a modern practice involving the use of sprays and sprinklers (common in Europe and USA).
Land can be improved by regulating the water supply: the soil aeration can be improved, bacterial activity stimulated, crop yields improved. Further, irrigation and draining can bring marginal lands, such as deserts and swamps, into agricultural use.
IRRIGATION If natural precipitation cannot meet the moisture requirements of plants, an artificial supply of water becomes necessary. This is irrigation. Irrigation has certain advantages: (i) regular and reliable supply of water; (ii) supply of silt if irrigation is from river waters; (iii) yearround cultivation; (iv) reduction of soil salinity in .deserts (but if water is allowed to evaporate from the fields, salinity will increase).
Types of Irrigation Lifting devices include wells, water wheels and, now, pumps. Basin irrigation involves letting flood water collect in basin-like fields on either side of the river. It was an ancient practice in Egypt. In USA, it is practised on canal water to grow paddy. Tanks are small reservoirs storing rain water. Canals can lead water from rivers or storage lakes to agricultural lands, and form an important feature of irrigated lands. Inundation canals lead water from rivers at times of flood, while perennial canals are fed by large dams or barrages and supply water all round the year. Overhead irrigation is a modern practice involving the use of sprays and sprinklers (common in Europe and USA).
AGRICULTURE AND THE SOIL
AGRICULTURE AND THE SOIL
Agriculture makes use of the nutrients provided by the soil, and if these nutrients are not replaced, the soil will be impoverished.
Overcropping causes soil deterioration and may result from monoculture, multicropping without the requisite fertiliser input, and shifting cultivation.
Overgrazing will cause e~osion by destroying grass cover. Deforestation, either for marketing timber or for agricultural purposes, will cause soil erosion, especially on hill slopes.
Soil conservation and sound farming methods are required if agricultural practices are not to be environmentally degrading.
Contour ploughing, where ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope, following the natural contour of the hill, will prevent water from flowing down the hill. Gullies are less likely to develop. Terracing, strip cropping, fallowing and cover-cropping (where cover crops are planted between young trees to protect soil), crop rotation, crop diversification and use of fertilisers help maintain soil health. Water management is equally important.
Agriculture makes use of the nutrients provided by the soil, and if these nutrients are not replaced, the soil will be impoverished.
Overcropping causes soil deterioration and may result from monoculture, multicropping without the requisite fertiliser input, and shifting cultivation.
Overgrazing will cause e~osion by destroying grass cover. Deforestation, either for marketing timber or for agricultural purposes, will cause soil erosion, especially on hill slopes.
Soil conservation and sound farming methods are required if agricultural practices are not to be environmentally degrading.
Contour ploughing, where ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope, following the natural contour of the hill, will prevent water from flowing down the hill. Gullies are less likely to develop. Terracing, strip cropping, fallowing and cover-cropping (where cover crops are planted between young trees to protect soil), crop rotation, crop diversification and use of fertilisers help maintain soil health. Water management is equally important.
VEGETABLES
Vegetables of one kind or other are grown practically all over the world at least for domestic use if not for trade and export. However, in recent times, international trade in this commodity is increasing.
Tuber crops may be tropical (cassav~ and yarns) or sub-tropical (sweet potatoes) and temperate (potatoes). Nigeria and other West African countries are the largest producers of yams. Russia, Poland and China are major producers of potato.
Root crops' such as .carrots, beets, and turnips are grown mainly in cool temperate climates.
Tomatoes grow in warm temperate regions.
Mushrooms also grow in temperate climes, though some varieties may be grown in warmer regions.
India produces 10 per cent of the world onion crop, and is the third largest exporter of this vegetable.
SPICES
Spices flavour food and supply nutrients. A wide variety of spices are grown, mainly in the tropical and sub tropical lands.
India is the largest producer (as well as consumer) of spices on the whole.
Pepper is perhaps the most important of the spices. A plant of the humid tropics, it grows' best in well-drained clay loam soil, rich in humus, and flourishes in warm, moist climate. An annual rainfall of 2500 mm and temperature around 10 °C to 40°C is ideal for its cultivation. Red, laterite virgin soil on the slopes of the Western Ghats is also suitable for growing pepper. The pepper cultivation of Indi~ is concentrated in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Pepper also comes from Malaysia, Cambodia and Indonesia.
Chilli is the pod of a small plant which grows in Asia and' tropical America. Ground dried chilli is called red or cayenne pepper. It was introduced in India in the 17th century from Brazil. Moderate rainfall of 600 to 1250 mm and a temperature range of 10-30 °C are the su.itable climatic conditionS for chilli cultivation. Heavy rainfall and frost affect the crop adversely. The rainfed crop does well on deep, fertile, well-drained black cotton soils and somewhat heavy clayey loams. With some irrigation provision, chilli can also be grown on sandy and light alluvial lo~ms and red loamy soils. Most of the states in India produce chillies to some extent. But the main p~oducers among them are Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
Cinnamon is the dried inner bark of a species of laurel and comes mainly from Sri Lanka. Karnataka and Kerala produce it in India.
Cloves are dried flower buds of the clove tree, and come mainly from the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar of the East African coast, as well as from South-East Asia. Karnataka is a major producer in India.
Nutmeg is the seed of a tree which originally came from Indonesia, which is still the main producer. Some nutmeg also comes from the West Indies. Karnataka produces it in India.
Cardamom is considered as the "Queen of Spices". The seeds contain 2-8 per cent of a strongly aromatic volatile oil. The cardamom plant thrives best in tropical fQrests at altitudes ranging from 600-1500 metres, receiving a well distributed rainfall of over 1500 mm and a temperature range of 10-35 °c. It thrives best in the shade provided by the forest trees. The crop is raised chiefly on welt-drained rich forest loam and red, deep, good-textured lateritic soils having plenty of humus or leaf mould. India is the largest producer and exporter of cardamom. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are major producers of the spice.
Vanilla, a flavouring used in cakes, ice-cream and other cooked food, is obtained from the seeds of an orchid, native to the South American forests and now produced mainly in Mexico, Malagasy and Indonesia.
Ginger is mainly grown for its aromatic rhizomes, and used as a spice as well as, medicine. Ginger is believed to be a native of China. It requires high temperatures and enough rainfall (1250 to 2500 mm). A certain amount of shade is considered to be favourable for plant growth; Rich and well-drained soil is suitable for its cultivation. Sandy or clayey loams and red loams and laterites of the Malabar coast are ideal soils. India is the largest producer of dry ginger. Kerala and Meghalaya are major producers. Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, West Bengal and Orissa also produce ginger.
Turmeric is the dried rhizome of a herbaceous perennial and is a native of India or China. An important condiment and a useful dye, it is used in drug and cosmetic industries. Warm and humid climate is essential for the
turmeric crop. In regions of heavy rainfall tracts of the west.
coast, it is grown as a rainfed crop, and in other areas it is cultivated under irrigation. Turmeric thrives in welldrained, fertile, sandy and clayey, black, red or alluvial loams rich in humus and uniform in texture. Rich loamy soils having natural drainage and irrigation facilities are the best. It cannot stand water stagnation or alkalinity. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the main contributors of turmeric. Other major producers are Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Uttar Pradesh.
Tuber crops may be tropical (cassav~ and yarns) or sub-tropical (sweet potatoes) and temperate (potatoes). Nigeria and other West African countries are the largest producers of yams. Russia, Poland and China are major producers of potato.
Root crops' such as .carrots, beets, and turnips are grown mainly in cool temperate climates.
Tomatoes grow in warm temperate regions.
Mushrooms also grow in temperate climes, though some varieties may be grown in warmer regions.
India produces 10 per cent of the world onion crop, and is the third largest exporter of this vegetable.
SPICES
Spices flavour food and supply nutrients. A wide variety of spices are grown, mainly in the tropical and sub tropical lands.
India is the largest producer (as well as consumer) of spices on the whole.
Pepper is perhaps the most important of the spices. A plant of the humid tropics, it grows' best in well-drained clay loam soil, rich in humus, and flourishes in warm, moist climate. An annual rainfall of 2500 mm and temperature around 10 °C to 40°C is ideal for its cultivation. Red, laterite virgin soil on the slopes of the Western Ghats is also suitable for growing pepper. The pepper cultivation of Indi~ is concentrated in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Pepper also comes from Malaysia, Cambodia and Indonesia.
Chilli is the pod of a small plant which grows in Asia and' tropical America. Ground dried chilli is called red or cayenne pepper. It was introduced in India in the 17th century from Brazil. Moderate rainfall of 600 to 1250 mm and a temperature range of 10-30 °C are the su.itable climatic conditionS for chilli cultivation. Heavy rainfall and frost affect the crop adversely. The rainfed crop does well on deep, fertile, well-drained black cotton soils and somewhat heavy clayey loams. With some irrigation provision, chilli can also be grown on sandy and light alluvial lo~ms and red loamy soils. Most of the states in India produce chillies to some extent. But the main p~oducers among them are Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
Cinnamon is the dried inner bark of a species of laurel and comes mainly from Sri Lanka. Karnataka and Kerala produce it in India.
Cloves are dried flower buds of the clove tree, and come mainly from the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar of the East African coast, as well as from South-East Asia. Karnataka is a major producer in India.
Nutmeg is the seed of a tree which originally came from Indonesia, which is still the main producer. Some nutmeg also comes from the West Indies. Karnataka produces it in India.
Cardamom is considered as the "Queen of Spices". The seeds contain 2-8 per cent of a strongly aromatic volatile oil. The cardamom plant thrives best in tropical fQrests at altitudes ranging from 600-1500 metres, receiving a well distributed rainfall of over 1500 mm and a temperature range of 10-35 °c. It thrives best in the shade provided by the forest trees. The crop is raised chiefly on welt-drained rich forest loam and red, deep, good-textured lateritic soils having plenty of humus or leaf mould. India is the largest producer and exporter of cardamom. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are major producers of the spice.
Vanilla, a flavouring used in cakes, ice-cream and other cooked food, is obtained from the seeds of an orchid, native to the South American forests and now produced mainly in Mexico, Malagasy and Indonesia.
Ginger is mainly grown for its aromatic rhizomes, and used as a spice as well as, medicine. Ginger is believed to be a native of China. It requires high temperatures and enough rainfall (1250 to 2500 mm). A certain amount of shade is considered to be favourable for plant growth; Rich and well-drained soil is suitable for its cultivation. Sandy or clayey loams and red loams and laterites of the Malabar coast are ideal soils. India is the largest producer of dry ginger. Kerala and Meghalaya are major producers. Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, West Bengal and Orissa also produce ginger.
Turmeric is the dried rhizome of a herbaceous perennial and is a native of India or China. An important condiment and a useful dye, it is used in drug and cosmetic industries. Warm and humid climate is essential for the
turmeric crop. In regions of heavy rainfall tracts of the west.
coast, it is grown as a rainfed crop, and in other areas it is cultivated under irrigation. Turmeric thrives in welldrained, fertile, sandy and clayey, black, red or alluvial loams rich in humus and uniform in texture. Rich loamy soils having natural drainage and irrigation facilities are the best. It cannot stand water stagnation or alkalinity. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the main contributors of turmeric. Other major producers are Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Uttar Pradesh.
DECIDUOUS FRUIT
DECIDUOUS FRUIT These include apple, pear, plum, peaches, apricot, cherries and nuts, such as the hazel nut. Cool temperate regions are also noted for a wide variety of soft fruit growing on shrubs, such as gooseberries, raspberries and red and black currants.
Plums of various kinds are grown in Europe and in California in USA. They may be used fresh, or dried in the form of prunes, or canned. Temperate fruit are grown in the border regions between the Mediterranean and temperate climates, and in regions where the climate is moderated by large lakes.
The apple, an important temperate fruit, requires summer temperatures above 15°C, at least 100 frost-free days and rainfall of 610-760 mm. The apple requires a dormant period and will not bear fruit in tropical environments where growth is not checked in winter. Apples are used to make cider, a fermented drink. France and Britain are major cider producers. In India, apples are grown in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and, on a small scale, in the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu.
The same areas grow other temperate fruits.
Plums of various kinds are grown in Europe and in California in USA. They may be used fresh, or dried in the form of prunes, or canned. Temperate fruit are grown in the border regions between the Mediterranean and temperate climates, and in regions where the climate is moderated by large lakes.
The apple, an important temperate fruit, requires summer temperatures above 15°C, at least 100 frost-free days and rainfall of 610-760 mm. The apple requires a dormant period and will not bear fruit in tropical environments where growth is not checked in winter. Apples are used to make cider, a fermented drink. France and Britain are major cider producers. In India, apples are grown in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and, on a small scale, in the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu.
The same areas grow other temperate fruits.
SUB-TROPICAL AND WARM TEMPERATE FRUITS
SUB-TROPICAL AND WARM TEMPERATE FRUITS In this group cbme the citrus fruit, such as oranges, lemons, limes and grapefruits as well as typically Mediterranean fruit such as olives, figs and grapes. In these regions we also have walnuts, chestnuts and almonds. Nuts are produced in large quantities in the Mediterranean lands. The main producers of nuts are Spain, Italy and Turkey.
Grapes are grown widely in the Mediterranean climes, of not only Europe, but also South Africa, Australia and the USA as well as in nearby sub-tropical and warm temperate regions. Grapes grow well in dry climates having a short sharp winter and a long dry summer. They do not thrive in regions having humid summers. Grape grows best on light, friable loamy soils with free drainage. Heavy soils are -unsuitable.
The main places of production of grapes in India are in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kamataka and Tamil Nadu. There are different varieties grown in different regions.
Citrus fruit are the most important fruit of the warmtemperate and sub-tropical regions, and among the citrus fruit the orange is the most widely grown. It is now regarded as a Mediterranean fruit but its origin was in China, where it is still grown in large quantities. The warm, sunny summers and mild winters of Mediterranean regions around the world suit its requirements ideally though it cannot tolerate prolonged summer droughts. It needs fairly cool temperatures in winter, just sufficient to check growth so that it can begin growing again in spring with renewed vigour. The main producers are Spain, Italy, California and Israel. Distinctive varieties of orange are known; e.g., Israel grows 'Jaffa' oranges, southern Spain grows bitter Seville oranges (used for making marmalade) -and 'tangerines' (similar to the 'mandarin' oranges of China).
In India, mandarin orange grows successfully in tropical and sub-tropical parts mainly under rainfed conditions and between elevations of 600 and 1500 metres. Orange can be grown successfully on a wide range of soils, but the ideal soil is medium or light loam with a slightly heavier subsoil. Heavy black soil, underlain with murrain and having good drainage, is also suitable. In. the hills and humid regions, where planting is generally done on steep slopes, the land is properly terraced. In the plains where the treeS have to be irrigated the land should be levelled.
In India, oranges are produced in Assam, Nagpur, Punjab, Wynad, Coorg, Palani hills and the Nilgiris of the south.
Another important fruit grown in India is the litchi which is produced in the foothills of the Himalaya.
Coconut (Cocos nucifera), a perennial palm, is grown extensively in humid coastal tracts of tropical countries. It requires 1000 mm to 2250 mm rainfall per annum and stands even higher rainfall if the soil is well drained. Temperatures of about 27°C and frost-free climate are needed.
Coconut does best on sandy loarns along sea coasts and in adjoining river valleys. It also grows in red loams, light grey soils, light black soils and peaty soils. The tree takes about 5 to 6 years to mature and then yields continuously for many years. About fifty nuts may be obtained from one tree over the year, harvesting every one or two months, which is the equivalent of about 4.5 litres (1 gallon) of oil. The oil is obtained from the copra, the dried flesh of the nut.' The milling residue, poonac, is a livestock feed. The husks of the coconut can be used to obtain coir, used in rope-making and matting; the shells can be used as fuel, or ground into a powder which can be used in making fibre boards and mosquito coils. The flowers are used to make a fermented drink called toddy. The stalks of the fronds are used to make brushes and brooms.
The leading copra-producing countries are the Philippines (producing more than ha~f of the world's output) and Indonesia, followed by India and Sri Lanka. In India, the main contributors are Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh in that order. Per-palm productivity is highest in Karnataka. Other states producing coconut are Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal.
Grapes are grown widely in the Mediterranean climes, of not only Europe, but also South Africa, Australia and the USA as well as in nearby sub-tropical and warm temperate regions. Grapes grow well in dry climates having a short sharp winter and a long dry summer. They do not thrive in regions having humid summers. Grape grows best on light, friable loamy soils with free drainage. Heavy soils are -unsuitable.
The main places of production of grapes in India are in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kamataka and Tamil Nadu. There are different varieties grown in different regions.
Citrus fruit are the most important fruit of the warmtemperate and sub-tropical regions, and among the citrus fruit the orange is the most widely grown. It is now regarded as a Mediterranean fruit but its origin was in China, where it is still grown in large quantities. The warm, sunny summers and mild winters of Mediterranean regions around the world suit its requirements ideally though it cannot tolerate prolonged summer droughts. It needs fairly cool temperatures in winter, just sufficient to check growth so that it can begin growing again in spring with renewed vigour. The main producers are Spain, Italy, California and Israel. Distinctive varieties of orange are known; e.g., Israel grows 'Jaffa' oranges, southern Spain grows bitter Seville oranges (used for making marmalade) -and 'tangerines' (similar to the 'mandarin' oranges of China).
In India, mandarin orange grows successfully in tropical and sub-tropical parts mainly under rainfed conditions and between elevations of 600 and 1500 metres. Orange can be grown successfully on a wide range of soils, but the ideal soil is medium or light loam with a slightly heavier subsoil. Heavy black soil, underlain with murrain and having good drainage, is also suitable. In. the hills and humid regions, where planting is generally done on steep slopes, the land is properly terraced. In the plains where the treeS have to be irrigated the land should be levelled.
In India, oranges are produced in Assam, Nagpur, Punjab, Wynad, Coorg, Palani hills and the Nilgiris of the south.
Another important fruit grown in India is the litchi which is produced in the foothills of the Himalaya.
Coconut (Cocos nucifera), a perennial palm, is grown extensively in humid coastal tracts of tropical countries. It requires 1000 mm to 2250 mm rainfall per annum and stands even higher rainfall if the soil is well drained. Temperatures of about 27°C and frost-free climate are needed.
Coconut does best on sandy loarns along sea coasts and in adjoining river valleys. It also grows in red loams, light grey soils, light black soils and peaty soils. The tree takes about 5 to 6 years to mature and then yields continuously for many years. About fifty nuts may be obtained from one tree over the year, harvesting every one or two months, which is the equivalent of about 4.5 litres (1 gallon) of oil. The oil is obtained from the copra, the dried flesh of the nut.' The milling residue, poonac, is a livestock feed. The husks of the coconut can be used to obtain coir, used in rope-making and matting; the shells can be used as fuel, or ground into a powder which can be used in making fibre boards and mosquito coils. The flowers are used to make a fermented drink called toddy. The stalks of the fronds are used to make brushes and brooms.
The leading copra-producing countries are the Philippines (producing more than ha~f of the world's output) and Indonesia, followed by India and Sri Lanka. In India, the main contributors are Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh in that order. Per-palm productivity is highest in Karnataka. Other states producing coconut are Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal.
VITICULTURE
Vine-cultivation or ylticulture is a specialised type of t1orticulture. The vine is a delicate plant cultivated in a few parts of the globe. For the grapes to ripen and the juice to be concentrated, a mean summer temperature of about 18°C is required. .Prolonged droughts are harmful to the vines because of excessive evaporation and the lack of ground moisture. Vines like plenty of sunshine and, near the limits of their cultivation, they are grown on south-facing slopes. A moderate rainfall of about 760 to 1,000 mm chiefly in the winter months is required. The Mediterranean climate with its sunny summer and warm, wet winters is thus ideal for viticulture. Vine does well in fairly deep, well-drained soils. Calcareous soils, such as those on the .chalk or limestone uplands of France and Germany, produce some of the best-known wines in the world.
After the grapes have been picked, juice is extracted and femientation takes place when the sugar in the juice reacts with the yeast present in the bloom of the grape-skin. This fermentation is allowed to. continue for several days until the liquid becomes 'quite clear. After a. second fermentation, there is no more carbon dioxide left in the casks. The resultant wine is 'still' rather than sparkling. The wine is bottled and then stored.
The colour of the wine is decided by the colour of the grapes, by the'soil in which they were grown, and by blending. Elurgundy and Bordeaux wines are mostly red, Rhine and Moselle wines are white, and rose-pink wines come chiefly from the Loire valley. Dry wines are fully fermented; sweet wines are only partially fermented so that not all the sugar is converted into alcohol.
Most of the world's wine comes from the Mediterranean countries. Italy and France are the greatest wine producers and also the greatest consumers. France is a major exporter but is a net importer of wine. High grade wines like Sherry (Spain), Asti and Chianti (Italy) or Port (Portugal) enter the international market and are in good demand.
After the grapes have been picked, juice is extracted and femientation takes place when the sugar in the juice reacts with the yeast present in the bloom of the grape-skin. This fermentation is allowed to. continue for several days until the liquid becomes 'quite clear. After a. second fermentation, there is no more carbon dioxide left in the casks. The resultant wine is 'still' rather than sparkling. The wine is bottled and then stored.
The colour of the wine is decided by the colour of the grapes, by the'soil in which they were grown, and by blending. Elurgundy and Bordeaux wines are mostly red, Rhine and Moselle wines are white, and rose-pink wines come chiefly from the Loire valley. Dry wines are fully fermented; sweet wines are only partially fermented so that not all the sugar is converted into alcohol.
Most of the world's wine comes from the Mediterranean countries. Italy and France are the greatest wine producers and also the greatest consumers. France is a major exporter but is a net importer of wine. High grade wines like Sherry (Spain), Asti and Chianti (Italy) or Port (Portugal) enter the international market and are in good demand.
TROPICAL FRUITS
TROPICAL FRUITS Tropical fruits include bananas, pineapples, papayas, mangoes, dates, coconut, Brazil nuts and many others.
Dates grow in desert conditions. They need water in the soil, which is often supplied by irrigation, but they will not thrive without high temperatures, low relative humidity and cloudless, sunny skies. Dates are, thus, not truly 'tropical', as they are also able to withstand mild frosts in winter. They are grown in all the desert areas of Africa and south-west Asia, the leading producers being Egypt, Iraq (where it is grown in the Tigris-Eupharates valley), Iran, and Saudi Arabia. Other producers of some importance are Pakistan, Algeria and Sudan.
Banana (Musa paradisiaca) is an important tropical fruit both as a subsistence crop and in world trade. Plantains, the most starchy varieties, are a staple food in some parts of the tropics. Bananas require deep, well-drained soils of high fertility; alluvial soils are ideal. Constant high temperatures are required; if temperature drops below 11°C the crop is damaged. They need plenty of water. Bananas take about a year to 15 months to mature, and each stem bears only one fruit head. During shipment by sea or by rail they must be kept at temperatures between 10 °C and 15°C, depending on the variety.
The main banana producing countries are Brazil, India, Indonesia, Ecuador, Thailand, Colombia and Honduras. The main exporters are Ecuador and the Central American states and West Indian islands. In India, banana, which is a moisture- and heat-loving plant, is broadly of two typest~ble and culinary. Among the former are Poovan in Chennai (also known as Karpura Chakkarekeli in Andhra Pradesh); Mortaman, Champa and Amritsagar in West Bengal; Champa and Mortaman in Assam and Orissa; Safed Velchi, Lal Yelchi and Rajeli in Maharashtra. Among the culinary are Nandran, Monthan, Myndoli and Pacha Montha Bathis. Maximum production comes from three states
. Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Other areas are Gujarat, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Tripura and Meghalaya.
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is grown in many parts of the tropics. They grow well in maritime situations and on peaty soils on coastal plains. It grows in all types of soils but can tolerate neither very high temperatures nor frost. China (including Taiwan) is the largest producer, followed by the (JSA (Hawaii) and Brazil. In India, Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Kerala and Karnataka are the important places of production of pineapple.
Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) is grown mainly in peninsular India for its fruit as well as for its nuts, but mainly for the latter. It was in 16th century that the cashew plantations were introduced in India by the Portuguese. However the first seeds were brought from Brazil.
Cashew cannot tolerate severe summers or winters. It requires a moderately high temperature of about 20°C and a rainfall varying from 500 to 4000 mm. It is not very exacting in soil requirements, as it grows even in very gravelly soils. Continued adequate soil moisture is, however, necessary for the success of a cashew plantation.
Cashew is commonly grown in the cbastal districts of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra. There are plantation.! on the east coast in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Pondicherry. Tripura produces some cashew, too. Area and production is maximum in Kerala.
Mango (Mangifera ind~ca) grows throughout India from the sea level up to about 1500 metres. It is adaptable to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. It can withstand both dry conditions and heavy rainfall. The mango is a native of monsoon lands and prefers a climate with 750 to 2500 II)II\ rainfall concentrated from June to September and mean shade temperatures of about 28°C.
The maximum production of mangoes in India comes from Uttar Pradesh, Bihar; Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala among others. The important varieties grown includes Chausa, Safeda, Langra, Dasheri of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Alphonso of Maharashtra and Goa, Banganapally of Andhra Pradesh, Totapari and Kesar of Gujarat, Rurnani and Neelurn of Tamil Nadu and Kamataka.
Dates grow in desert conditions. They need water in the soil, which is often supplied by irrigation, but they will not thrive without high temperatures, low relative humidity and cloudless, sunny skies. Dates are, thus, not truly 'tropical', as they are also able to withstand mild frosts in winter. They are grown in all the desert areas of Africa and south-west Asia, the leading producers being Egypt, Iraq (where it is grown in the Tigris-Eupharates valley), Iran, and Saudi Arabia. Other producers of some importance are Pakistan, Algeria and Sudan.
Banana (Musa paradisiaca) is an important tropical fruit both as a subsistence crop and in world trade. Plantains, the most starchy varieties, are a staple food in some parts of the tropics. Bananas require deep, well-drained soils of high fertility; alluvial soils are ideal. Constant high temperatures are required; if temperature drops below 11°C the crop is damaged. They need plenty of water. Bananas take about a year to 15 months to mature, and each stem bears only one fruit head. During shipment by sea or by rail they must be kept at temperatures between 10 °C and 15°C, depending on the variety.
The main banana producing countries are Brazil, India, Indonesia, Ecuador, Thailand, Colombia and Honduras. The main exporters are Ecuador and the Central American states and West Indian islands. In India, banana, which is a moisture- and heat-loving plant, is broadly of two typest~ble and culinary. Among the former are Poovan in Chennai (also known as Karpura Chakkarekeli in Andhra Pradesh); Mortaman, Champa and Amritsagar in West Bengal; Champa and Mortaman in Assam and Orissa; Safed Velchi, Lal Yelchi and Rajeli in Maharashtra. Among the culinary are Nandran, Monthan, Myndoli and Pacha Montha Bathis. Maximum production comes from three states
. Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Other areas are Gujarat, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Tripura and Meghalaya.
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is grown in many parts of the tropics. They grow well in maritime situations and on peaty soils on coastal plains. It grows in all types of soils but can tolerate neither very high temperatures nor frost. China (including Taiwan) is the largest producer, followed by the (JSA (Hawaii) and Brazil. In India, Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Kerala and Karnataka are the important places of production of pineapple.
Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) is grown mainly in peninsular India for its fruit as well as for its nuts, but mainly for the latter. It was in 16th century that the cashew plantations were introduced in India by the Portuguese. However the first seeds were brought from Brazil.
Cashew cannot tolerate severe summers or winters. It requires a moderately high temperature of about 20°C and a rainfall varying from 500 to 4000 mm. It is not very exacting in soil requirements, as it grows even in very gravelly soils. Continued adequate soil moisture is, however, necessary for the success of a cashew plantation.
Cashew is commonly grown in the cbastal districts of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra. There are plantation.! on the east coast in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Pondicherry. Tripura produces some cashew, too. Area and production is maximum in Kerala.
Mango (Mangifera ind~ca) grows throughout India from the sea level up to about 1500 metres. It is adaptable to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. It can withstand both dry conditions and heavy rainfall. The mango is a native of monsoon lands and prefers a climate with 750 to 2500 II)II\ rainfall concentrated from June to September and mean shade temperatures of about 28°C.
The maximum production of mangoes in India comes from Uttar Pradesh, Bihar; Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala among others. The important varieties grown includes Chausa, Safeda, Langra, Dasheri of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Alphonso of Maharashtra and Goa, Banganapally of Andhra Pradesh, Totapari and Kesar of Gujarat, Rurnani and Neelurn of Tamil Nadu and Kamataka.
MAJOR CROP PRODUCTION
MAJOR CROP PRODUCTION
Geographical factors, such as climate (which includes temperature and rainfall), soil and topography, influence agricultural practices and production. The major food crops (such as cereals and pulses), cash or commercial crops (such as oilseeds, jute and sugarcane), and plantation crops (such as tea, coffee and rubber) are given, along with the conditions of their growth and other relevant facts, in tabular form.
FRUITS
VEGETABLES
SPICES
Geographical factors, such as climate (which includes temperature and rainfall), soil and topography, influence agricultural practices and production. The major food crops (such as cereals and pulses), cash or commercial crops (such as oilseeds, jute and sugarcane), and plantation crops (such as tea, coffee and rubber) are given, along with the conditions of their growth and other relevant facts, in tabular form.
FRUITS
VEGETABLES
SPICES
CROPPING INTENSITY IN INDIA
CROPPING INTENSITY IN INDIA
There are only two ways to satisfy the increasing food and other agricultural demands of the country's rising population: either expanding the net area under cultivation or intensifying cropping over the existing area. The net sown area of the country has risen by about 20 per cent since independence and has reached a point where it is not possible to make any appreciable increase. Thus; raising the cropping intensity is the only viable option left.
Cropping intensity refers to raising of a number of crops from the same field during one agriculture year. It can be expressed as
Cropping intensity = (Gross cropped area / Net sown area) x 100
Thus, higher cropping intensity means that a higher portion of the net area is being cropped more than once during one agricultural year. This also implies higher productivity per unit of arable land during one agricultural year. For instance, suppose a farmer owns five hectares of land, and gets the crop from these five acres during the kharif season and, again, during the rabi season he raises a crop from three hectares. He, thus, gets the effective produce from eight hectares, although he owns only five hectares physically. Had he raised crop from five hectares totally, his cropping intensity would have been 100 per cent, while now it is 160 per cent.
According to the data of 1990-91 (latest available), the index of intensity of cropping for the co~try as a whole is 130 per cent. It shows great spatial variations with 'higher levels in northern plains. Punjab has the highest cropping intensity of 176 per cent, followed by Himachal Pradesh (169 per cent), West Bengal (157 per cent), Haryana (145 per cent) and Uttar Pradesh (143 per cent). The intensity is low in dry, rainfed regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka (110-125 per cent).
There are only two ways to satisfy the increasing food and other agricultural demands of the country's rising population: either expanding the net area under cultivation or intensifying cropping over the existing area. The net sown area of the country has risen by about 20 per cent since independence and has reached a point where it is not possible to make any appreciable increase. Thus; raising the cropping intensity is the only viable option left.
Cropping intensity refers to raising of a number of crops from the same field during one agriculture year. It can be expressed as
Cropping intensity = (Gross cropped area / Net sown area) x 100
Thus, higher cropping intensity means that a higher portion of the net area is being cropped more than once during one agricultural year. This also implies higher productivity per unit of arable land during one agricultural year. For instance, suppose a farmer owns five hectares of land, and gets the crop from these five acres during the kharif season and, again, during the rabi season he raises a crop from three hectares. He, thus, gets the effective produce from eight hectares, although he owns only five hectares physically. Had he raised crop from five hectares totally, his cropping intensity would have been 100 per cent, while now it is 160 per cent.
According to the data of 1990-91 (latest available), the index of intensity of cropping for the co~try as a whole is 130 per cent. It shows great spatial variations with 'higher levels in northern plains. Punjab has the highest cropping intensity of 176 per cent, followed by Himachal Pradesh (169 per cent), West Bengal (157 per cent), Haryana (145 per cent) and Uttar Pradesh (143 per cent). The intensity is low in dry, rainfed regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka (110-125 per cent).
CROPPING PATTERN IN INDIA
CROPPING PATTERN IN INDIA
Cropping pattern means the proportional area w1der different crops at a particular point of time. The cropping, pattern of any region 'is the outcome of a long process of historical evolution. The outstanding features of cropping pattern in India are as follows:
(i) Net sown area increased from 1,187.5 lakh hectare in 1950-51 to 1,412.3 lakh hectare in 1999-2000. Broad cropping pattern indicates that though foodgrains have a preponderance in gross cropped area as compared to nonfoodgrains, their relative share came down from 76.7 per cent during 1950-51 to 65.8 per cent during 1999-2000.
(ii) There are a wide variety of crops raised.
(iii) In eastern India and coastal lowlands, especially the western coast south of Goa, rice is the predominant crop. Tea and jute are distinctive crops of east India. Jowar, bajra, pulses, cotton and groundnut are the chief crops in the plateau, while wheat is mainly raised in the alluvial plains of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
(iv) Food producing agriculture is strikingly concentrated upon three grain crops, e.g., rice, millet and wheat, with some maize and barley. Pulses come next in area, and then oilseeds.
(v) Though a substantial area in India lies under tobacco, potatoes, fruits and vegetables, their share in the total cropped area is relatively small.
Cropping pattern means the proportional area w1der different crops at a particular point of time. The cropping, pattern of any region 'is the outcome of a long process of historical evolution. The outstanding features of cropping pattern in India are as follows:
(i) Net sown area increased from 1,187.5 lakh hectare in 1950-51 to 1,412.3 lakh hectare in 1999-2000. Broad cropping pattern indicates that though foodgrains have a preponderance in gross cropped area as compared to nonfoodgrains, their relative share came down from 76.7 per cent during 1950-51 to 65.8 per cent during 1999-2000.
(ii) There are a wide variety of crops raised.
(iii) In eastern India and coastal lowlands, especially the western coast south of Goa, rice is the predominant crop. Tea and jute are distinctive crops of east India. Jowar, bajra, pulses, cotton and groundnut are the chief crops in the plateau, while wheat is mainly raised in the alluvial plains of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
(iv) Food producing agriculture is strikingly concentrated upon three grain crops, e.g., rice, millet and wheat, with some maize and barley. Pulses come next in area, and then oilseeds.
(v) Though a substantial area in India lies under tobacco, potatoes, fruits and vegetables, their share in the total cropped area is relatively small.
CROPPING SEASONS IN INDIA
CROPPING SEASONS IN INDIA
India has many growing seasons due to prevalence of high temperature through a long period. Different crop seasons are:
(a) Kharif: Crops are sown at the beginning of the south-west monsoon and harvested at the end of the south-west monsoon.
Sowing seasons-May to July
Harvesting season-September to October
Important crops: Jowar, bajra, rice, maize, cotton, groundnut, jute, hemp, sugarcane, tobacco, ete.
(b) Rabi: Crops need relatively cool climate during the period of growth but warm climate during the germination of their seed and maturation.
Sowing season-october-December
Harvesting season-February-April
Important crops: wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, masoor, pea~ and potatoes.
(c) Zaid: Bes;des the kharif and rabi crops, there are certain crops which are being raised throughout the year due to artificial irrigation.
Zaid kharif crops are sown in August-September and harvested in December-January.
Important crops: rice, jowar, rapeseed, cotton, oilseeds.
Zaid rabi crops are sown in February-March. Harvesting is in April-May.
Important crops: watermelon, toris, cucumber, leafy and other vegetables.
India has many growing seasons due to prevalence of high temperature through a long period. Different crop seasons are:
(a) Kharif: Crops are sown at the beginning of the south-west monsoon and harvested at the end of the south-west monsoon.
Sowing seasons-May to July
Harvesting season-September to October
Important crops: Jowar, bajra, rice, maize, cotton, groundnut, jute, hemp, sugarcane, tobacco, ete.
(b) Rabi: Crops need relatively cool climate during the period of growth but warm climate during the germination of their seed and maturation.
Sowing season-october-December
Harvesting season-February-April
Important crops: wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, masoor, pea~ and potatoes.
(c) Zaid: Bes;des the kharif and rabi crops, there are certain crops which are being raised throughout the year due to artificial irrigation.
Zaid kharif crops are sown in August-September and harvested in December-January.
Important crops: rice, jowar, rapeseed, cotton, oilseeds.
Zaid rabi crops are sown in February-March. Harvesting is in April-May.
Important crops: watermelon, toris, cucumber, leafy and other vegetables.
P. Sengupta and G.S. Dayak's Zones
P. Sengupta and G.S. Dayak's Zones
According to Sengupta and Dayak, the country may be divided into 4 macro-; 25 mega- and 60 mIcro-agricultural regions.
These regions are as follows. .
1. The Himalayan Zone In this zone, the annual rainfall varies from 120 em to 250 em; it covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Kumaon Himalaya and its foothills, Darjeeling, Assam Himalaya, etc. As the region is mountainous, the area is considered as negative area from the point of view of cultivation and settlement.
2. The West Zone The zone comprises north-eastern plateaus. viz., Chhotanagpur, northern Orissa, Bastar Plateau, central parts of Madhya Pradesh, Upper Mahanadi basin and Kaimur hills and the eastern hills and plateaus. The annual rainfall varies from 100 to 125 em. The important crops grown are rice, tea, jute, oilseeds, gram, millets, wheat, sugarcane, banana, coconut, 'etc.
3. Sub-Ill/mid Zone The zone embraces a vast stretch of land in peninsular India from Bundelkhand plateau through the heart of the lava plateau down to the east coast region. The annual rainfall varies between 75 and 100 em. The proportion of cultivated region reaches a high figure wherever water is available for irrigation. The most intensively cultivated areas are the Ganga plain and the east coast deltas, where proportion of cultivated land to the total area comes to about 70 per cent. Wheat, sugarcane, rice, gram, maize, millets, cotton, groundnut, oilseed and tobacco are the main crops.
4. The Dry Zone Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan desert plain, western Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat are the areas which are dry and where average rainfall is about 75 em a year. The area suffers from acute shortage of water. Millets, grain, wheat, oilseeds, cotton and groundnut are the main crops
According to Sengupta and Dayak, the country may be divided into 4 macro-; 25 mega- and 60 mIcro-agricultural regions.
These regions are as follows. .
1. The Himalayan Zone In this zone, the annual rainfall varies from 120 em to 250 em; it covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Kumaon Himalaya and its foothills, Darjeeling, Assam Himalaya, etc. As the region is mountainous, the area is considered as negative area from the point of view of cultivation and settlement.
2. The West Zone The zone comprises north-eastern plateaus. viz., Chhotanagpur, northern Orissa, Bastar Plateau, central parts of Madhya Pradesh, Upper Mahanadi basin and Kaimur hills and the eastern hills and plateaus. The annual rainfall varies from 100 to 125 em. The important crops grown are rice, tea, jute, oilseeds, gram, millets, wheat, sugarcane, banana, coconut, 'etc.
3. Sub-Ill/mid Zone The zone embraces a vast stretch of land in peninsular India from Bundelkhand plateau through the heart of the lava plateau down to the east coast region. The annual rainfall varies between 75 and 100 em. The proportion of cultivated region reaches a high figure wherever water is available for irrigation. The most intensively cultivated areas are the Ganga plain and the east coast deltas, where proportion of cultivated land to the total area comes to about 70 per cent. Wheat, sugarcane, rice, gram, maize, millets, cotton, groundnut, oilseed and tobacco are the main crops.
4. The Dry Zone Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan desert plain, western Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat are the areas which are dry and where average rainfall is about 75 em a year. The area suffers from acute shortage of water. Millets, grain, wheat, oilseeds, cotton and groundnut are the main crops
Dr Randhawa's Division of Indian Region
Dr Randhawa's Division of Indian Region
Dr Randhawa has classified the zones as follows:
1. Temperate Himalayan Region The region has been
subdivided into two.The Eastern Himalayan Region is mainly wet where rainfall is heavy (over 250 cm) and there are thick sal forests-:- The regio~ included here are Sikkim, Bhutan, Upper Assam and Mishmi Hills. These are mainly teagrowing areas. Cultivation of paddy is done in some places.
The Western Himalayan Region is mainly dry and includes Kulu and Kangra valleys, Garhwal, Kumaon, Simla Hills. Horticultural crops, particularly walnuts, almonds, apples, cherries, apricots and plums, occupy a high place.
Even potato, maize and paddy are cultivated in some' regions.
2. Northern Dry (or Wheat) Region In this region, the annual rainfall is less than 75 em and in .many places even less than 20 em. The soil is alluvial and sandy. This region comprises Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, western Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Wheat, barley, maize, cotton are the chief crops.
3. Eastern Wet (or Rice) Region In this region, annual rainfall is over 150 em and the soil is alluvial. The main crops are rice, jute, sugarcane and tea. The region includes Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Chhattisgarh and other eastern regions like Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram. Rice being the staple crop, its straw is used as cattle feed.
4. Western Wet Region or Malabar Region It comprises Kerala, Karnataka and adjoining areas where the annual rainfall is over 253 em and the soil is lateritic. Coconut is the predominant crop besides tapioca, cashewlmt, arecanut, rubber, black pepper, cardamom. Rice is the main food.
5. Southern Region or Millet Region In this region, the annual rainfall is between 50 em and 100 em and the soil is partly black cotton and partly lateritic. Jowar, bajra, groundnut, castor seed and cotton are the chief crops. The region comprises southern Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat (south), Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, western Tamil Nadu, eastern Maharashtra and parts of Karnataka.
Dr Randhawa has classified the zones as follows:
1. Temperate Himalayan Region The region has been
subdivided into two.The Eastern Himalayan Region is mainly wet where rainfall is heavy (over 250 cm) and there are thick sal forests-:- The regio~ included here are Sikkim, Bhutan, Upper Assam and Mishmi Hills. These are mainly teagrowing areas. Cultivation of paddy is done in some places.
The Western Himalayan Region is mainly dry and includes Kulu and Kangra valleys, Garhwal, Kumaon, Simla Hills. Horticultural crops, particularly walnuts, almonds, apples, cherries, apricots and plums, occupy a high place.
Even potato, maize and paddy are cultivated in some' regions.
2. Northern Dry (or Wheat) Region In this region, the annual rainfall is less than 75 em and in .many places even less than 20 em. The soil is alluvial and sandy. This region comprises Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, western Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Wheat, barley, maize, cotton are the chief crops.
3. Eastern Wet (or Rice) Region In this region, annual rainfall is over 150 em and the soil is alluvial. The main crops are rice, jute, sugarcane and tea. The region includes Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Chhattisgarh and other eastern regions like Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram. Rice being the staple crop, its straw is used as cattle feed.
4. Western Wet Region or Malabar Region It comprises Kerala, Karnataka and adjoining areas where the annual rainfall is over 253 em and the soil is lateritic. Coconut is the predominant crop besides tapioca, cashewlmt, arecanut, rubber, black pepper, cardamom. Rice is the main food.
5. Southern Region or Millet Region In this region, the annual rainfall is between 50 em and 100 em and the soil is partly black cotton and partly lateritic. Jowar, bajra, groundnut, castor seed and cotton are the chief crops. The region comprises southern Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat (south), Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, western Tamil Nadu, eastern Maharashtra and parts of Karnataka.
AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF INDIA
AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF INDIA
In determining agricultural regions of India, factors like rainfall, temperature, altitude, latitude, soils and crops are taken into consideration. Many authors and organisations have classified regions for agricultural planting and management into different categories. Dr Chen Han Seng has divided India into 16 regions on the basis of topographical situation, agricultural water supply, crop system, land tenure system and general economic development. K. William Easter has classified regions for agricultural planning and management into different categories. One is the crop regions appropriate for central production planning of major crops, and another comprises the agro-climatic regions for use in overall agricultural planning. He divides the country into 3 main divisions, 10 subdivisions and 52 regions excluding the Himalayan regions. The National Sample Survey Organisation has divided the country into 25 main agricultural regions with 66 sub-regions by grouping within each state/union territory districts or parts of districts having similar population density, crop pattern and altitude above sea level and also having good transport and communication facilities.
In determining agricultural regions of India, factors like rainfall, temperature, altitude, latitude, soils and crops are taken into consideration. Many authors and organisations have classified regions for agricultural planting and management into different categories. Dr Chen Han Seng has divided India into 16 regions on the basis of topographical situation, agricultural water supply, crop system, land tenure system and general economic development. K. William Easter has classified regions for agricultural planning and management into different categories. One is the crop regions appropriate for central production planning of major crops, and another comprises the agro-climatic regions for use in overall agricultural planning. He divides the country into 3 main divisions, 10 subdivisions and 52 regions excluding the Himalayan regions. The National Sample Survey Organisation has divided the country into 25 main agricultural regions with 66 sub-regions by grouping within each state/union territory districts or parts of districts having similar population density, crop pattern and altitude above sea level and also having good transport and communication facilities.
HOW FARMS ARE ORGANISED
HOW FARMS ARE ORGANISED
Land tenure is an important aspect of agriculture. Farmers may own their land or they may lease land from a landowner. In parts of USA, Latin America and Europe, share cropping or metayage is common: the landlord usually provides the seed because the tenant has no money to buy it, and the tenant then works the land. On the crop being harvested, the landlord receives a part of the crop in lieu of rent and to pay for the seed. Generally owner-occupation is considered to be better than tenancy as it encourages farmers to improve the land.
The traditional type of farm in most regions of southern Europe, e.g., Spain, Italy, as well as in Latin America and other-- 'new' lands was the large estatevariously called in Europe as estancias, hacienda and fazemias; stations in Australia; and plantations in other areas. They are owned by a single person or by a company and are both capital- and labour-intensive.
Cooperative farming is practised in highly developed countries. An advanced form of farm organisation, it works in rural societies with a literate population, capable of understanding the cooperative principles and competent in managing the business of the cooperative in the best interests of the farmers. In Sweden, the Netherlands and Belgium, the cooperative movement has been very successful. In Denmark, practically every farmer is a cooperative member.
A collective farm, according to communists, is a voluntary productive cooperative union based on socia/. ownership of the means of production and on collective labour in which there is no exploitation of man by man. In reality, these farms are state co-operatives run by it managing committee and headed by a farm manager who is responsible to the government. With the collapse of communism in Europe, farm land has once again gone to individuals.
A slightly different type of communal farming is practised in Israel on the kibbutzim. Farmers living on the kibbutz work on the land together but receive no formal payment. They only receive spending money while housing, clothing, food, medical attention and education come free. However, the system is a 'voluntary' one.
Land tenure is an important aspect of agriculture. Farmers may own their land or they may lease land from a landowner. In parts of USA, Latin America and Europe, share cropping or metayage is common: the landlord usually provides the seed because the tenant has no money to buy it, and the tenant then works the land. On the crop being harvested, the landlord receives a part of the crop in lieu of rent and to pay for the seed. Generally owner-occupation is considered to be better than tenancy as it encourages farmers to improve the land.
The traditional type of farm in most regions of southern Europe, e.g., Spain, Italy, as well as in Latin America and other-- 'new' lands was the large estatevariously called in Europe as estancias, hacienda and fazemias; stations in Australia; and plantations in other areas. They are owned by a single person or by a company and are both capital- and labour-intensive.
Cooperative farming is practised in highly developed countries. An advanced form of farm organisation, it works in rural societies with a literate population, capable of understanding the cooperative principles and competent in managing the business of the cooperative in the best interests of the farmers. In Sweden, the Netherlands and Belgium, the cooperative movement has been very successful. In Denmark, practically every farmer is a cooperative member.
A collective farm, according to communists, is a voluntary productive cooperative union based on socia/. ownership of the means of production and on collective labour in which there is no exploitation of man by man. In reality, these farms are state co-operatives run by it managing committee and headed by a farm manager who is responsible to the government. With the collapse of communism in Europe, farm land has once again gone to individuals.
A slightly different type of communal farming is practised in Israel on the kibbutzim. Farmers living on the kibbutz work on the land together but receive no formal payment. They only receive spending money while housing, clothing, food, medical attention and education come free. However, the system is a 'voluntary' one.
AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD
AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD
One of the most satisfactory classifications of agricultural regions in the world was proposed by D. Whittlesey in 1936. Whittlesey employed five criteria to classify agricultural regions in the world: (a) crop and livestock combination; (b) intensity of land use; (c) processing and marketing of farm produce; (d) degree of mechanisation; and (e) types and associations of buildings and other structures associated with agriculture.
Based on these criteria, the following 13 main types of agricultural regions have been identified: (1) nomadic herding; (ii) livestock ranching; (iii) shifting cultivation; (iv) rudimental sedentary tillage; (v) intensive subsistence, ricedominant; (vi) intensive subsistence, without rice; (vii) commercial plantation; (viii) Mediterranean agriculture; (ix) commercial grain farming; (x) commercial livestock and crop farming; (xi) Subsistence crop and livestock farming; (xii) commercial dairy farming; and (xiii) specialised horticulture.
One of the most satisfactory classifications of agricultural regions in the world was proposed by D. Whittlesey in 1936. Whittlesey employed five criteria to classify agricultural regions in the world: (a) crop and livestock combination; (b) intensity of land use; (c) processing and marketing of farm produce; (d) degree of mechanisation; and (e) types and associations of buildings and other structures associated with agriculture.
Based on these criteria, the following 13 main types of agricultural regions have been identified: (1) nomadic herding; (ii) livestock ranching; (iii) shifting cultivation; (iv) rudimental sedentary tillage; (v) intensive subsistence, ricedominant; (vi) intensive subsistence, without rice; (vii) commercial plantation; (viii) Mediterranean agriculture; (ix) commercial grain farming; (x) commercial livestock and crop farming; (xi) Subsistence crop and livestock farming; (xii) commercial dairy farming; and (xiii) specialised horticulture.
MIXED FARMING
MIXED FARMING A very important form of agriculture, mixed farming is found in the higWy developed parts of the world: north-western Europe, east~rn North America, Russia, Ukraine, and the temperate latitudes of parts of the southern continents. Farming is very intensive and sometimes highly specialised with some farms being devoted entirely to arable farming or entirely to livestock. Generally, however, farmers practise a truly mixed form, raising animals and growing crops on the same farm. Many of these farms also have land for growing fruit trees (apples, pears, cherries) or small fruits (such as gooseberries, strawberries) and vegetable crops. Even bees are kept to provide honey.
This type of mixed farming is found mostly in Europe, especially in Britain, Belgium and the Netherlands. In the USA,. mixed farming may be devoted more to one single crop. The system is characterised by high capital expenditure on machinery and farm buildings, large scale use of chemical fertilisers as well as green manure, and also by the expertise of the farmers.
Farmers specialise in commercial dairy farming in many parts of western Europe, e.g., Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands, southern Scandinavia, Switzerland, in the North Atlantic states of North America (the Hay and Dairy Belt), Australia and New Zealand. This is a highly intensive type of livestock farming.
Market gardening is well-developed in the densely populated industrial districts of north-western Europe: in Britain, Denmark, Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. North-eastern USA is also an important centre.
A modern development in the industrial regions of western Europe and North America is factory farming, in which livestock is raised under cover. This is a high capitalintensive venture.
This type of mixed farming is found mostly in Europe, especially in Britain, Belgium and the Netherlands. In the USA,. mixed farming may be devoted more to one single crop. The system is characterised by high capital expenditure on machinery and farm buildings, large scale use of chemical fertilisers as well as green manure, and also by the expertise of the farmers.
Farmers specialise in commercial dairy farming in many parts of western Europe, e.g., Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands, southern Scandinavia, Switzerland, in the North Atlantic states of North America (the Hay and Dairy Belt), Australia and New Zealand. This is a highly intensive type of livestock farming.
Market gardening is well-developed in the densely populated industrial districts of north-western Europe: in Britain, Denmark, Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. North-eastern USA is also an important centre.
A modern development in the industrial regions of western Europe and North America is factory farming, in which livestock is raised under cover. This is a high capitalintensive venture.
MEDITERRANEAN AGRICULTURE
MEDITERRANEAN AGRICULTURE The Mediterranean climatic region which experiences winter rain and summer d~ought has given rise to a distinctive type of agriculture. This type of farming is also found in irrigated semi-desert and desert areas in similar latitudes. Farming is intensive and highly specialised. A variety of crops are raised.
Citrus fruits, olives and figs, with long, widespread roots, scant foliage and thick skinned fruits are best adapted to the Mediterranean type of climate. Dates are prominent in semi-arid region in North Africa and in scattered areas in south-west Europe, where cultivation of other crops is not viable.
Viticulture or grape cultivation is typical of the Mediterranean regions. It calls for a highly intensive form of farming. Not only good conditions of moisture, temperature and soil are required, but much personal care is also called for, if the grapes are to be of high quality. Grapes grown in different parts of the Mediterranean lands have distinctive flavours, and the wines made in the various areas have their exclusive names, e.g., sherry from the Andalusia district in southern Spain, port wine from the Douro Basin in western Portugal, Marsala from Sicily, Chianti from the Chianti Hills of Tuscany, Asti from the Piedmont district of northern Italy. In France, wine-making is a national industry even though much of the country does not. enjoy a Mediterranean climate. Here there is even more distinct specialisation: the sparkling Champagne comes from the Paris basin; Burgundy from the limestone scarplands of the Cote d'Or; Claret, Brandy (Cognac), Barsac and Bordeaux from different parts of western France, especially the basin of Aquitaine. Raisins or currants are inferior grapes which have been dried. Greece, Turkey and California are the major exporters of raisins. Incidentally, California accounts for four-fifths of all the grapes grown in the United States. It supplies mainly table grapes and raisins.
Animal grazing is not widely prevalent. as grass, with its shallow roots, does not flourish in these regions. It is only in the most favoured areas, e.g., the Lombardy Plain. Ebro Basin, San Joaquin Valley of California, that dairy farming is important. The relative unimportance of animal farming and the importance of olive cultivation is evident in the large use of olive oil for cooking rather than animal fat.
Citrus fruits, olives and figs, with long, widespread roots, scant foliage and thick skinned fruits are best adapted to the Mediterranean type of climate. Dates are prominent in semi-arid region in North Africa and in scattered areas in south-west Europe, where cultivation of other crops is not viable.
Viticulture or grape cultivation is typical of the Mediterranean regions. It calls for a highly intensive form of farming. Not only good conditions of moisture, temperature and soil are required, but much personal care is also called for, if the grapes are to be of high quality. Grapes grown in different parts of the Mediterranean lands have distinctive flavours, and the wines made in the various areas have their exclusive names, e.g., sherry from the Andalusia district in southern Spain, port wine from the Douro Basin in western Portugal, Marsala from Sicily, Chianti from the Chianti Hills of Tuscany, Asti from the Piedmont district of northern Italy. In France, wine-making is a national industry even though much of the country does not. enjoy a Mediterranean climate. Here there is even more distinct specialisation: the sparkling Champagne comes from the Paris basin; Burgundy from the limestone scarplands of the Cote d'Or; Claret, Brandy (Cognac), Barsac and Bordeaux from different parts of western France, especially the basin of Aquitaine. Raisins or currants are inferior grapes which have been dried. Greece, Turkey and California are the major exporters of raisins. Incidentally, California accounts for four-fifths of all the grapes grown in the United States. It supplies mainly table grapes and raisins.
Animal grazing is not widely prevalent. as grass, with its shallow roots, does not flourish in these regions. It is only in the most favoured areas, e.g., the Lombardy Plain. Ebro Basin, San Joaquin Valley of California, that dairy farming is important. The relative unimportance of animal farming and the importance of olive cultivation is evident in the large use of olive oil for cooking rather than animal fat.
LIVESTOCK RANCHING
LIVESTOCK RANCHING
The extensive temperate grasslands, once roamed bv nomadic herdsmen or by hunters,
have now become sit~s of permanent ranches where large number of cattle, sheep, goats, and horses are kept. Reindeer are also kept on ranches in the sub-Arctic lands of Siberia. In this type of agriculture, vegetative cover is continuous, there is no migration, ranches are scientifically managed, animals are raised for commercial purposes, and towns and communications are developed., In these aspects it differs from nomadic herding. USA, New Zealand and Argentina are known for well-developed commercial ranching.' The tropical savannas, e.g., on the Campos and llanos of South America, Mexico, central and southern Africa and tropical Australia also practise it to an extent.
The extensive temperate grasslands, once roamed bv nomadic herdsmen or by hunters,
have now become sit~s of permanent ranches where large number of cattle, sheep, goats, and horses are kept. Reindeer are also kept on ranches in the sub-Arctic lands of Siberia. In this type of agriculture, vegetative cover is continuous, there is no migration, ranches are scientifically managed, animals are raised for commercial purposes, and towns and communications are developed., In these aspects it differs from nomadic herding. USA, New Zealand and Argentina are known for well-developed commercial ranching.' The tropical savannas, e.g., on the Campos and llanos of South America, Mexico, central and southern Africa and tropical Australia also practise it to an extent.
NOMADIC HERDING
NOMADIC HERDING An extensive form of animal grazing on natural pasturage, entailing constant or seasonal migration of the nomads alongwith their flocks, nomadic herding is confined to sparsely populated parts of the world \yhere the natural vegetation is mainly grass and the rainfall is low ilnd seasonal. It is practised by the Fulani of the West African" savannas, the Masai in East Africa and the Nuba in Ethiopia and Sudan, and by the Bantu and Hottentots in Botswana, Mozambique and South Africa. The Bedouin of Saudi Arabia, and the Tuareg of the Sahara practise nomadic,heeding in the desert and semi-desert areas of South-West . 'Asi'(anq North Africa. In Scandinavia, the Lapps, who were onte:Oomadic, are tending to settle down.
Cattle are the most important livestock in most of the tropical areas of Africa, though in drier ilreas they may be replaced by goats. The long-haired angora goats of the Anatolian Plateau of Turkey are known for their valuable wool. In desert areas, the camel is important as. a source of wool and milk, but it is used mainly as a drought animal. In the Steppes of Central Asia, sheep and horses are very important. In mountainous regions such as Tibet, yak is more important. In the Andes of South America, llamas provide high quality wool. For the Lapps and the Samoyeds of Arctic and sub-Arctic areas in Scandinavia and northern Russia, reindeer provide food, hides, milk and transport.
Transhumance resembles nomadic herding as it too involves the seasonal movement of animals in search of pasture; it is of a permanent nature, and a more intensive method of livestock farming. In mountain areas such as Norway, Switzerland, Italy, in parts of Britain and in the mountainous west of the USA and Canada, cattle or sheep of a ranch may be kept in the valleys in winter, and taken out to the mountain pastures or alps' or sa etas in spring,
Cattle are the most important livestock in most of the tropical areas of Africa, though in drier ilreas they may be replaced by goats. The long-haired angora goats of the Anatolian Plateau of Turkey are known for their valuable wool. In desert areas, the camel is important as. a source of wool and milk, but it is used mainly as a drought animal. In the Steppes of Central Asia, sheep and horses are very important. In mountainous regions such as Tibet, yak is more important. In the Andes of South America, llamas provide high quality wool. For the Lapps and the Samoyeds of Arctic and sub-Arctic areas in Scandinavia and northern Russia, reindeer provide food, hides, milk and transport.
Transhumance resembles nomadic herding as it too involves the seasonal movement of animals in search of pasture; it is of a permanent nature, and a more intensive method of livestock farming. In mountain areas such as Norway, Switzerland, Italy, in parts of Britain and in the mountainous west of the USA and Canada, cattle or sheep of a ranch may be kept in the valleys in winter, and taken out to the mountain pastures or alps' or sa etas in spring,
EXTENSIVE MECHANISED GRAIN CULTIVATION
EXTENSIVE MECHANISED GRAIN CULTIVATION
A recent development in the continental lands of the midlatitudes, which were once roamed by nomadic herdsmen, this kind of agriculture was motivated by the invention of farm machinery. Farmers are able to cultivate grain on a large scale, and there is specialisation in wheat monoculture in many regions. The Eurasian Steppe, the Canadian and American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the Veld of South Africa, the Australian powns, and the Canterbury Plain of New Zealand are the major regions practising this type of agriculture. It is characterised by large farms, use of mechanised cultivation, monoculture of wheat (though other crops are becoming important), low yield per acre but high yield per person.
A recent development in the continental lands of the midlatitudes, which were once roamed by nomadic herdsmen, this kind of agriculture was motivated by the invention of farm machinery. Farmers are able to cultivate grain on a large scale, and there is specialisation in wheat monoculture in many regions. The Eurasian Steppe, the Canadian and American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the Veld of South Africa, the Australian powns, and the Canterbury Plain of New Zealand are the major regions practising this type of agriculture. It is characterised by large farms, use of mechanised cultivation, monoculture of wheat (though other crops are becoming important), low yield per acre but high yield per person.
CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE TYPES
CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE TYPES
Before the advent of agriculture, all human beings were hunters, gatherers or fishers. Even today some communities are occupied in hunting and gathering, but they are isolated groups comprising a very small number. Now agriculture is practised practically all over the world. The major agricultural types are discussed here.
SIMPLE SUBSISTENCE FARMING Mainly practised by tribes of .the tropics, especially in Africa, in tropical South Central America, and in South-east Asia; better known as shifting cultivation. Farmers grow food only for themselves and their families. Shifting cultivation goes by different names in different parts of the world, e.g., mi/pa in Central America and parts of Africa, eonueo in Venezuela, roea in Brazil, masole in Zaire, ladang in Malaysia, lIulI/all in Indonesia, eaingin in the Philippines, tallllgya in Burma, tamrai in. Thailand, fhum or bewar or poda in India and cllC1W in Sri Lanka. The elders select sites, usually in the virgin forest and preferably hilI slopes as they have better drainage. The forests are usually cleared by fire and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. Trees not burnt are cut down or left to decay naturally. Shifting cultivation is thus also called 'slash-and burn' agriculture. The cultivated patches are usually very small, and primitive tools are used. Starchy foods comprise the main crops-tapioca, yam, cassava, corn, millet, bananas. Crop growing is for short periods, followed by long periods of fallowing. 'Field rotation' rather than 'crop rotation' marks this type of agriculture. As the ideal requirement of fallow periods of 20 years is hardly practised, the practice leads to soil erosion and even total destruction of forests. It is noteworthy that continuous slash-and-burn farming in West Africa has extended the southern limit of savanna well into the former forested zone. Shifting cultivation is usually supplemented by hunting, fishing or gathering fruits. Sedimentary subsistence agriculture in tropical lowlands, where the fallowed fields are frequently re-used and the community stays permanently in one spot, is an advanced form of subsistence farming.
INTENSIvE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE It is in the monsoon lands of Asia that this type of agriculture is to be found. Some geographers term it 'oriental agriculture'. Its striking features include an intensive use of land, much manual labour, low use of farm machinery or modern tools and the use of a variety of manures and fertilisers. Irrigation is often resorted to in order to compensate for lack of moisture.
PLANT A TION AGRICULTURE This type involves specialised commercial cultivation of cash crops on estates of plantations. It is a distinctive type of t!9pical agriculture, found in many parts of Asia, Africa and tropical and subtropical America. The main plantation crops are rubber, cotton and copra, beverages like coffee, tea and cocoa, fruits like pineapples and bananas, as well as sugarcane, hemp and jute. It calls for heavy capital outlay and scientific maniigement.
Before the advent of agriculture, all human beings were hunters, gatherers or fishers. Even today some communities are occupied in hunting and gathering, but they are isolated groups comprising a very small number. Now agriculture is practised practically all over the world. The major agricultural types are discussed here.
SIMPLE SUBSISTENCE FARMING Mainly practised by tribes of .the tropics, especially in Africa, in tropical South Central America, and in South-east Asia; better known as shifting cultivation. Farmers grow food only for themselves and their families. Shifting cultivation goes by different names in different parts of the world, e.g., mi/pa in Central America and parts of Africa, eonueo in Venezuela, roea in Brazil, masole in Zaire, ladang in Malaysia, lIulI/all in Indonesia, eaingin in the Philippines, tallllgya in Burma, tamrai in. Thailand, fhum or bewar or poda in India and cllC1W in Sri Lanka. The elders select sites, usually in the virgin forest and preferably hilI slopes as they have better drainage. The forests are usually cleared by fire and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. Trees not burnt are cut down or left to decay naturally. Shifting cultivation is thus also called 'slash-and burn' agriculture. The cultivated patches are usually very small, and primitive tools are used. Starchy foods comprise the main crops-tapioca, yam, cassava, corn, millet, bananas. Crop growing is for short periods, followed by long periods of fallowing. 'Field rotation' rather than 'crop rotation' marks this type of agriculture. As the ideal requirement of fallow periods of 20 years is hardly practised, the practice leads to soil erosion and even total destruction of forests. It is noteworthy that continuous slash-and-burn farming in West Africa has extended the southern limit of savanna well into the former forested zone. Shifting cultivation is usually supplemented by hunting, fishing or gathering fruits. Sedimentary subsistence agriculture in tropical lowlands, where the fallowed fields are frequently re-used and the community stays permanently in one spot, is an advanced form of subsistence farming.
INTENSIvE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE It is in the monsoon lands of Asia that this type of agriculture is to be found. Some geographers term it 'oriental agriculture'. Its striking features include an intensive use of land, much manual labour, low use of farm machinery or modern tools and the use of a variety of manures and fertilisers. Irrigation is often resorted to in order to compensate for lack of moisture.
PLANT A TION AGRICULTURE This type involves specialised commercial cultivation of cash crops on estates of plantations. It is a distinctive type of t!9pical agriculture, found in many parts of Asia, Africa and tropical and subtropical America. The main plantation crops are rubber, cotton and copra, beverages like coffee, tea and cocoa, fruits like pineapples and bananas, as well as sugarcane, hemp and jute. It calls for heavy capital outlay and scientific maniigement.
Agriculture
ORIGIN
It is not certain when agriculture began. "Agriculture involves deliberate effort to modify the earth's surface through cultivation of crops and rearing of live-stock for sustenance or economic gain." It is likely that agriculture had multiple points of origin from where it spread to other parts of the earth's surface. Vegeculture-the reproduction of plants by direct cloning of existent plants-was probably first practised in South-east Asia. Animals like the dog, pig and chicken, too, were first domesticated in South-East Asia. Other early centres for vegeculture were'located in West Africa and North-west South America. Seed agriculturereproducing plants through annual introduction of seedsmay have originated in several locations, including China, Western India" Ethiopia, Southern Mexico and north-western South America.
It is not certain when agriculture began. "Agriculture involves deliberate effort to modify the earth's surface through cultivation of crops and rearing of live-stock for sustenance or economic gain." It is likely that agriculture had multiple points of origin from where it spread to other parts of the earth's surface. Vegeculture-the reproduction of plants by direct cloning of existent plants-was probably first practised in South-east Asia. Animals like the dog, pig and chicken, too, were first domesticated in South-East Asia. Other early centres for vegeculture were'located in West Africa and North-west South America. Seed agriculturereproducing plants through annual introduction of seedsmay have originated in several locations, including China, Western India" Ethiopia, Southern Mexico and north-western South America.
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